Novel compounds advantageous in the treatment of central nervous system diseases and disorders

ABSTRACT

A series of novel amides showing broad pharmaceutical activity. Compounds described herein are effective as anticonvulsants, chemical countermeasures, and analgesics. Such compounds also show, neuroprotective/neuroreparative effects and activity against spinal muscular atrophy. Such pharmaceutically active compounds show utility in the treatment of central nervous system (“CNS”) diseases and disorders, such as anxiety, depression, insomnia, migraine headaches, schizophrenia, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson&#39;s disease, Alzheimer&#39;s, ALS, and Huntington&#39;s disease) spasticity, and bipolar disorder. Furthermore, such compounds may additionally find utility as analgesics (e.g., for the treatment of chronic or neuropathic pain) and as neuroprotective agents useful in the treatment of stroke(s), and/or traumatic brain and/or spinal cord injuries.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/938,341 filed 11 Nov. 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/881,068 filed 13 Sep. 2010 and patented as U.S. Pat. No. 9,212,155, issued 15 Dec. 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/922,068 filed 10 Sep. 2010 (having a 371(c) date of 10 Nov. 2010) and patented as U.S. Pat. No. 9,206,143, issued 8 Dec. 2015, which claims the benefit of and priority to PCT Application Serial No. PCT/US09/37558 filed 18 Mar. 2009, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/037,987 filed 19 Mar. 2008. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/938,341 also claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/242,807 filed 16 Oct. 2015. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/881,068 also claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/243,110 filed 16 Sep. 2009 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/334,356 filed 13 May 2010. The above listed applications are incorporated herein by this reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. The Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to novel compounds showing activity in the central nervous systems (CNS). More specifically, the present invention relates to novel compounds with anticonvulsant activity that exhibit increased/improved toxicological safety (i.e., decreased toxicity), increased/improved metabolic stability, longer half-life, and/or a superior side effect profile, while producing similar or increased biological activity (i.e., efficacy), when compared to currently available CNS therapeutic agents.

2. The Related Technology

A number of pathological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, stroke, bipolar affective disorder, migraine headaches, anxiety, depression, insomnia, schizophrenia, chronic or neuropathic pain, spasticity, spinal cord injury, and chronic neurodegenerative disorders), and diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Alzheimer's disease) are characterized by abnormalities in the normal function of the central nervous system (CNS). These conditions and diseases typically respond to pharmacologic intervention with compounds or substances that modulate CNS activity. Compounds with this activity include the compounds of the present invention, which are herein disclosed to treat abnormalities of the CNS, such as epilepsy. While currently available therapeutics often have good CNS activity, they frequently exhibit other undesirable properties, such as chronic toxicity, severe and/or unpleasant side effects, and inadequate pharmacokinetic properties, such as a short pharmacologic half-life. For example, a short half-life in a CNS therapeutic may require its frequent administration in order to sustain therapeutic concentrations of the drug without eliciting adverse effects, and where frequent dosing schedules are required, the cost of therapy may increase. In addition, as the required dosing frequency increases, patient compliance tends to decrease. It would therefore be desirable to provide additional compounds that modulate CNS activity and have improved properties, such as, e.g., an increased half-life, increased activity (i.e., improved efficacy), and/or increased metabolic stability (e.g., fewer toxic metabolites) when compared to those of currently available therapies. Furthermore, improved and simpler/simplified synthetic and chemical manufacturing processes can be developed which can help to make the useful compounds of the invention more widely available to a larger portion of the patient population.

It is noteworthy that the derivatization (N-alkylation) of the nitrogen atom of amide groups has produced compounds such as N,N-diethylisovaleramide, which has been marketed previously as a sedative (“Valyl”). However, this compound has been shown instead to exhibit CNS-stimulating, anxiogenic, and convulsant properties. Indeed, N-methylated amide derivatives can show either CNS-stimulating or -depressing properties, whereas N-ethyl and larger derivatives generally possess CNS-stimulating properties.

Thus, N,N-disubstituted amide compounds such as cropropamide, crotethamide, ethamivan, nikethamide, N,N-diethylisovaleramide, and the insect repellent, DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide), have all been shown to exhibit CNS- (proconvulsant-) and respiratory-stimulating properties in mammals (including humans). Cropropamide, crotethamide, ethamivan, and niketamide have been used as CNS and respiratory stimulants in humans, e.g., to counteract the potentially life-threatening CNS- and respiratory-depressing effects of barbiturate poisoning (overdose).

It is also noteworthy that the primary amide, modafinil (ProVigil) has been shown to possess CNS-stimulant and pro-alertness (pro-vigilance) properties.

BRIEF SUMMARY

A series of novel amides with broad pharmaceutical activity. Compounds described herein are effective as anticonvulsants, chemical countermeasures, and analgesics. Such compounds also show neuroprotective/neuroreparative effects and activity against spinal muscular atrophy. Such pharmaceutically active compounds show utility in the treatment of central nervous system (“CNS”) diseases and disorders, such as anxiety, depression, insomnia, migraine headaches, schizophrenia, neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, ALS, and Huntington's disease) spasticity, and bipolar disorder. Furthermore, such compounds may additionally find utility as analgesics (e.g., for the treatment of chronic or neuropathic pain) and as neuroprotective agents useful in the treatment of stroke(s), and/or traumatic brain and/or spinal cord injuries.

Many of the amides disclosed herein have a phenyl group attached to the amide moiety via a short and variously branched/substituted aliphatic linker. Other compounds of the invention are amide derivatives of optically active amino acids (e.g., D or L), such as alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, or phenylalanine, or the optically inactive amino acids, glycine or taurine.

In one embodiment, a compound having Formula I is disclosed.

In Formula I, R₁ can be one of H, CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH. Z can be one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃. When R₁ is (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH, such compounds can be amide derivatives of optically inactive amino acid (taurine and glycine) or optically active amino acids (alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine). See, for example, compounds BO, BP, BQ, BR, BS, and BT as shown in FIG. 3C.

R₂ can be one of H, CH₃, CH₂H₅, (CH₂)₂OCH₃, (CH₂)₃OCH₃, or C₁-C₅ alkyl.

R₃ can be one of CH₃, CH₂CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂,

where X is =nothing, (—CH₂—), (—CH₂-)₂, or (—CH₂-)₃, or

where X is =nothing, (—CH₂—), (—CH₂-)₂, or (—CH₂-)₃. R₄ can be one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃, CONR₁R₂,

where X is (—CH₂—) or (—CH₂-)₂,

where R₅ is one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃, or CONR₁R₂. And of R₄ can be 1-5 and n of R₅ can be 1-4.

Formula I and a number of novel amides that exemplify Formula I are illustrated in FIG. 16.

In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle. See, for example, compounds BG, BH, BI (showing a morpholine group), BJ (showing a piperazine group), and BK of FIG. 3B. The heterocycles may be substituted, such as 1-cyclopropylpiperazine, 1-methylpiperazine, and the like.

In another embodiment, a compound having Formula IIA is disclosed.

In Formula IIA, Ar is a substituted phenyl or an optionally substituted heterocyclic aryl. The heterocyclic aryl may be selected form the group consisting of pyrazine, optionally substituted pyridine, or an optionally substituted quinoxaline, wherein up to 5 substituents may be present.

Each substituent on Ar is independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, thioalkyl, sulfoxyalkyl, sulfonylalkyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, OH, CH₂OH, CONH₂, CN, acetoxy, N(alkyl)₂, benzyl, benzyloxy, NO₂, CHO, CH₃CH(OH), acetyl, OCH₂COOH, an optionally substituted aromatic ring system attached to one or two atoms of the Ar, and a bifunctional substituent that forms a ring with the Ar. In the aromatic ring system, the aromatic rings are selected from the group consisting of phenyl, phenoxy, and heterocyclic aryl. In the bifunctional substituent that forms a ring with the Ar, the bifunctional substituents are selected from the group consisting of a cycloalkyl and an alkylenedioxy.

R₁ and R₂ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H and optionally substituted alkyl. In some embodiments, R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle. See, for example, compounds BG, BH, BI (showing a morpholine group), BJ (showing a piperazine group), and BK of FIG. 3B. The heterocycles may be substituted, such as 1-cyclopropylpiperazine, 1-methylpiperazine, and the like.

In some embodiments, R₁ may be (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH, where Z can be one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H₅, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃. Such compounds can be amide derivatives of optically inactive amino acid (taurine and glycine) or optically active amino acids (alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine). See, for example, the amide groups of compounds BO, BP, BQ, BR, BS, and BT as shown in FIG. 3C.

R₃ is selected from the group consisting of OH, optionally substituted alkyl, and together with R₄ cycloalkyl. In some cases, when R₃ is OH, then R₄ is not an ethyl.

R₄ is one of H, optionally substituted alkyl or together with R₃ cycloalkyl.

X is one of nothing, O, NR₁, S, sulfone, or sulfoxide.

In another embodiment, a compound having Formula II, which is a subset of Formula IIA, is disclosed.

In Formula II Ar may be an optionally substituted pyrazine, optionally substituted pyridine, or an optionally substituted quinoxaline, wherein up to 5 substituents are optionally present on Ar and each substituent is independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, CH₂OH, CONH₂, CN, and OCH2COOH.

Formula II and a number of novel amides that exemplify Formula II are illustrated in FIG. 17.

In another embodiment, a compound represented by Formula III is disclosed.

In Formula III R₁ may be one of H, CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH. Z may be one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃. When R₁ is (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH, such compounds can be amide derivatives of optically inactive amino acid (taurine and glycine) or optically active amino acids (alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine). See, for example, the amide groups of compounds BO, BP, BQ, BR, BS, and BT as shown in FIG. 3C. R₂ may be independently one of H or CH₃. R₃ may be one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃ or CONR₁R₂. And n may be 0-2.

Formula III and a number of novel amides that exemplify Formula III are illustrated in FIG. 18.

In some embodiments R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle. See, for example, the cycloalkyls or heterocycles of compounds BG, BH, BI (showing a morpholine group), BJ (showing a piperazine group), and BK of FIG. 3B. The heterocycles may be substituted, such as 1-cyclopropylpiperazine, 1-methylpiperazine, and the like.

In yet another embodiment, a compound represented by Formula IV is disclosed.

In Formula IV, R₁ can be one of H, CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH. Z can be one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃. R₂ can be one of H or CH₃. R₃ can be one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃, or CONR₁R₂. n can be 1-5. And X is =nothing, (—CH₂—), (—CH₂-)₂, or (—CH₂-)₃.

Formula IV and a number of novel amides that exemplify Formula IV are illustrated in FIG. 19.

Any one of the compounds described above or a combination of the compounds described above can be included in a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition includes a therapeutically effective amount of at least one of the compounds described above admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.

In one embodiment, the therapeutically effective amount is effective for at least one of the following: (a) treating and/or preventing one or more neurodegenerative disease, (b) treating or preventing spinal muscular atrophy, (c) to provide anticonvulsant activity to a subject, (d) to treat and/or prevent convulsions in a subject, (e) to treat and/or prevent seizures in a subject, (f) to treat and/or prevent spasticity in a subject, (g) to treat and/or prevent affective mood disorders in a subject, (h) to treat and/or prevent bipolar mood disorder in a subject, (i) to treat and/or prevent chronic headaches in a subject, (j) to treat and/or prevent cluster headaches in a subject, (k) to treat and/or prevent migraine headaches in a subject, (l) to treat and/or prevent restlessness syndromes in a subject, (m) to treat and/or prevent neuropathic pain in a subject, or (n) to treat and/or prevent movement disorders in a subject.

Any one of the compounds described above or a combination of the compounds described above can be included as a therapeutic agent in a in a method for treating and/or preventing a neurodegenerative disease or treating and/or preventing spinal muscular atrophy. In one embodiment, the therapeutic agent is blended with at least one of the compounds described above blended with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.

In addition the functions described above, the therapeutic agent may be sufficient to treat and/or prevent the symptoms of at least one of anxiety, depression, insomnia, migraine headaches, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, spasticity, Alzheimer's disease, bipolar disorder, chronic or neuropathic pain, stroke, chronic neurodegenerative diseases, cognitive impairment, attention deficit-hyper activity disorder, Huntington's disease, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, or status epilepticus. In addition, the therapeutic agent may be sufficient for a chemical countermeasure.

These and other embodiments and features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention as set forth hereinafter.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the chemical structures of the novel compounds of the invention that are pharmacologically active in the central nervous systems (CNS) of (for example) mammals, and which exemplify embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 2 shows the relative biological activity of the compounds of the invention, specifically showing those compounds which are preferred (second category, ED₅₀<300 mg/kg) and most preferred (first category, ED₅₀<100 mg/kg).

FIG. 3A shows the structures of further compounds of the invention, which are also in the category of most preferred compounds.

FIG. 3B shows the structures of further compounds of the invention, which are also in the category of most preferred compounds.

FIG. 3C shows the structures of additional compounds of the invention, which are also in the category of most preferred compounds.

FIG. 3D shows the structures of additional compounds of the invention, which are also in the category of most preferred compounds.

FIGS. 4A-4O illustrate examples of the syntheses of various compounds and key intermediates.

FIG. 5 shows a ¹H-NMR spectrum of compound H.

FIG. 6A shows an LC/MS Total Ion Chromatogram of compound H.

FIG. 6B shows a mass spectrum of compound H.

FIGS. 7A-C illustrate LC chromatograms of compound H with UV monitoring at 254, 215, and 215 nm, respectively.

FIG. 8 shows another mass spectrum of compound H.

FIG. 9 shows a chiral liquid chromatographic separation of the two enantiomers of compound H, with UV monitoring at 208 nm.

FIGS. 10 and 11 show liquid chromatograms of the separated individual enantiomers of compound H, with UV monitoring at 208 nm.

FIG. 12 shows a ¹H-NMR spectrum of compound CC.

FIG. 13 shows a ¹³C-NMR spectrum of compound CC.

FIGS. 14 and 15 show additional ¹H-NMR spectra of compound CC.

FIG. 16 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention and the chemical structures of a number of novel, pharmacologically active compounds that exemplify the illustrated embodiment.

FIG. 17 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention and the chemical structures of a number of novel, pharmacologically active compounds that exemplify the illustrated embodiment.

FIG. 18 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention and the chemical structures of a number of novel, pharmacologically active compounds that exemplify the illustrated embodiment.

FIG. 19 illustrates an embodiment of the present invention and the chemical structures of a number of novel, pharmacologically active compounds that exemplify the illustrated embodiment.

FIGS. 20A-20D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound BX against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 21A-21D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound B against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 22A-22D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound M against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 23A-23D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound N against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 24A-24D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound AS against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 25A-25D illustrate observed neuroprotective/recovery effects of compound BY against oxidative damage in rat dopaminergic N27 cells.

FIGS. 26A-26C illustrate the measured effect of compound BX on rotenone-induced toxicity in a Drosophila model of sporadic Parkinson's disease.

FIGS. 27A-27C illustrate the effect of oral treatment of mice for two weeks with compound BX in an MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease model, which yielded a reduction of abnormal movement in the hindlimb clasping test (A), improved motor coordination in the crossbeam test (B), and improved grooming behavior in the coat grooming test (C).

FIGS. 28A and 28B illustrate that two weeks of oral treatment with compound BX was sufficient to induce recovery from MPTP-induced damage in striatum in mice.

FIG. 29 illustrates the response of survival motor neuron 2 (SMN2) promoter reporter cells to exposure to a number of the novel, pharmacologically active compounds exemplified herein.

FIG. 30 illustrates the response of Exon 7 reporter cells to exposure to a number of the novel, pharmacologically active compounds exemplified herein.

FIGS. 31A-31C illustrate the localization of SMN protein to discrete intracellular structures called gems in response to exposure of spinal muscular atrophy fibroblast cells to a number of the novel, pharmacologically active compounds exemplified herein.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS 1. Overview

The inventors have discovered that the compounds of the invention and certain of their pharmacologically active analogs and congeners can be administered in vivo to effect a modulation of CNS activity. That is, these agents modulate CNS activity, by enhancing inhibitory, or decreasing excitatory, neurotransmission centrally, without complete suppression of all activity. Pursuant to the present invention, therefore, a subject who receives such an agent is not overtly sedated, anesthetized, or paralyzed in the context of, for example, decreasing seizures (no anesthesia), decreasing muscle tone (no paralysis), eliciting a calmative effect (no sedation), or ameliorating an ambulatory syndrome such as spasticity (no weakness or flaccidity).

A number of pathologies, exemplified by convulsions (seizures), spasticity, affective mood disorders, such as bipolar mood disorder, headaches (chronic, cluster, migraine), restlessness syndromes, neuropathic pain, and movement disorders, have at least one symptom that is alleviated by a modulation of CNS activity. Accordingly, an individual who suffers from such a pathology is a candidate for therapy that entails, pursuant to the present invention, the individuals receiving a pharmaceutical formulation or composition containing the compounds of the invention or one of their structurally related analogs or congeners as one of the principal active ingredients.

2. Exemplary Pathologies Ameliorated by a Modulation of Central Nervous System (CNS) Activity

CONVULSIONS: Epilepsy is a common disorder which has many causes, and it can be very difficult to control clinically, often requiring treatment for many years to keep seizures under control. Researchers have stated that “[a]t this time, there is no satisfactory treatment for epilepsy in a substantial proportion of patients. Clinical trials have shown that certain patients have a better response to one drug than another, even when the patients have similar types of seizures and the drugs have similar mechanisms of action. The frequency and severity of side effects also varies substantially. Thus, multiple medications with different mechanisms of action and attendant side effects will be needed for treatment of epilepsy until either epilepsy can be cured or a potent, safe new drug with broad activity is discovered” and developed.

Due to the widespread availability of reasonably predictive and experimentally accessible animal models of convulsant states, a number of clinically useful anticonvulsants have been prepared and developed. “In many patients, seizures can be controlled with currently available antiepileptic drugs, but 25 to 30 percent of patients continue to have seizures despite optimal therapy, while many others experience unacceptable side effects.”

Thus, many anticonvulsants in clinical use are plagued by the occurrence of significant side effects, including troublesome daytime sedation, muscular weakness, tolerance, gingival hyperplasia, and potentially fatal blood dyscrasias and hepatotoxicity. Many of these side effects are especially of concern in the clinical management (treatment) of epilepsy in children.

The present invention can be used to treat convulsive disorders such as epilepsy. That is, the compositions and pharmaceutical formulations and compositions of the invention display “anticonvulsant activity,” which is evidenced by a reduction of the severity, number, or duration of convulsions in animal models of epilepsy. To alleviate convulsions includes reducing the severity, number of duration of convulsions in a patient. Accordingly, the novel compositions and pharmaceutical formulations and compositions should be useful in treating conditions such as, but not limited to, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures, myoclonic seizures, simple partial seizures, complex partial seizures, secondarily generalized partial seizures, status epilepticus, and trauma-induced seizures, as occur following head injury or surgery.

SPASTICITY: Spasticity is a disorder characterized by an increase in tonic stretch reflexes (muscle tone) with exaggerated tendon jerks resulting from hyperexcitability of the stretch reflex. Major disease states and conditions associated with spasticity include multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, stroke, trauma or injury to the spinal cord, and head trauma. Symptoms that occur with spasticity include painful flexor and extensor spasms, increased or exaggerated deep-tendon reflexes, clonus, muscular weakness, fatigue, lack of dexterity, various degrees of loss of general motor function, paralysis, and impairment of sleep.

The pathological states observed in spasticity are fundamentally different at the physiological level from the commonly experienced acute muscular aches, strains, and sprains that occur from a localized external insult to a particular muscle, i.e., outside of or peripheral to the CNS. These pathological states also are different from the relatively common involuntary spasms or smooth muscle, such as vascular spasms, bladder spasms, and bronchial spasms. Such non-spastic (non-CNS), peripheral or localized symptoms are commonly treated with so-called “antispasmodic” or “spasmolytic” agents, but these generally are not useful in treating spasticity.

The compositions of matter and pharmaceutical formulations and compositions employed in accordance with the present invention can cause a centrally mediated decrease in muscle tone and, hence, are useful for the acute or chronic alleviation of one or more symptoms or side effects of spasticity. In this context, “spasticity” refers to a heightened tone of skeletal muscle with is manifested by symptoms such as, but not limited to, painful flexor or extensor spasms, increased or exaggerated deep-tendon reflexes, hyperreflexia, loss of dexterity, muscular weakness, exaggerated tendon jerks, and clonus. The phrase “antispasticity agent” refers here to a composition that is useful for the symptomatic treatment of spasticity, as demonstrated by the alleviation of at least one of the following manifestations or side effects of spasticity: painful flexor or extensor spasms, increased or exaggerated deep-tendon reflexes, hyperreflexia, loss of dexterity, muscular weakness, exaggerated tendon jerks, and clonus, or the reduction of the frequency of these manifestations or side effects.

Accordingly, the “alleviation” of spasticity refers here to the lessening of one or more symptoms of spasticity, including, but not limited to, painful flexor or extensor spasms, increased or exaggerated deep-tendon reflexes, hyperreflexia, loss of dexterity, muscle weakness, exaggerated tendon jerks, and clonus, or the reduction of the frequency of these manifestations or side effects.

AFFECTIVE MOOD DISORDERS: These include conditions ranging from depression to dysphoric mania, for example, mania, schizoaffective disorder, traumatic brain injury-induced aggression, post-traumatic stress disorder, bipolar mood disorder, panic states, and behavioral dyscontrol syndromes. The novel compositions and pharmaceutical formulations and compositions according to the present invention are effective in the treatment of these diseases, disorders, and conditions, and should exhibit improved side effect profiles when compared to currently existing therapeutic agents in this therapeutic category.

NEUROPATHIC PAIN SYNDROMES: Conditions in this category, involving “neuropathic pain,” affect a significant number of patients suffering from disorders of the brain or spinal cord, such as stroke, trauma, multiple sclerosis, and diabetes. The use of anticonvulsants to treat various pain states has been documented extensively. Thus, a novel composition or pharmaceutical formulation or composition of the present invention can be applied in similar fashion to ameliorate neuropathic pain.

HEADACHES: Headaches of the migraine type, the cluster type, and the chronic type have been treated with anticonvulsants. The compositions and formulations of the present invention can therefore be used to alleviate the symptoms associated with each of these three headache types, without the adverse side effects of current existing therapies.

RESTLESSNESS SYNDROME: The phrase “restlessness syndrome” denotes a somatic (non-mental) restlessness characterized by involuntary movement of the limbs, as well as by a sense of physical (rather than mental) agitation, which is independent of mood and, hence, is distinguished from restlessness per se.

Restlessness syndromes, inclusive of numerous indications, can be observed in association with many organic and non-organic psychiatric illnesses. For example, drug-induced restlessness (tardive, chronic, and withdrawal akathisias), such as drug-induced extrapyramidal symptoms, is one of the most common side effects of neuroleptic drug therapy. Also within the restlessness-syndrome rubric are the so-called “restless leg syndrome” and “sleep-related periodic leg movements,” pathologies that can be associated with head and/or spinal cord trauma and with lesions of the spinal cord. Idiopathic restless leg syndrome follows an autosomal dominant inheritance, with a variable clinical expression of symptoms. The present invention provides an effective therapy for restlessness syndromes with minimal side effects.

MOVEMENT DISORDERS: Various agents are known to decrease the dyskinetic movement characterizing movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's chorea, Alzheimer's disease, tardive dyskinesia, and stiff-man syndrome. A therapy within the present invention alleviates one or more symptoms of a movement disorder.

Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA)

SMA is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder caused by a genetic defect in the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene, which encodes SMN, a protein widely expressed in all eukaryotic cells. SMN is apparently selectively necessary for survival of motor neurons, as diminished abundance of the protein results in loss of function of neuronal cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and subsequent system-wide muscle wasting (atrophy). SMA affects about 1 in 6,000-10,000 live births and is a leading genetic cause of infant death. While SMA is almost always caused by a homozygous deletion of the SMN1 gene, almost all SMA patients have a functional SMN2, which is a nearly perfect duplicate of SMN1.

In healthy individuals, the SMN1 gene codes the survival of motor neuron protein (SMN) which, as its name says, plays a crucial role in survival of motor neurons. The SMN2 gene, on the other hand—due to a variation in a single nucleotide (840 C→T)—undergoes alternative splicing at the junction of intron 6 to exon 8, with only 10-20% of SMN2 transcripts coding a fully functional survival of motor neuron protein (SMN-fl) and 80-90% of transcripts resulting in a truncated protein compound (SMNΔ7) which is rapidly degraded in the cell.

Nevertheless, splicing of SMN2 pre-mRNAs sometimes (˜10-20%) leads to the production of full-length SMN2 mRNAs (termed FL-SMN), which leads to functional SMN2 protein that performs the same function as SMN1. It is believed that agents (e.g., small molecule drugs) that are good candidate treatment for SMA may, for example, increase the activity of the SMN2 gene promotor and/or increase the inclusion of correct Δ7 splicing. The data presented herein demonstrates that many of the pharmacologically active compounds described in this application show promise as potential SMA therapeutics.

The compounds of the invention may also be useful as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) agents.

By “neurological disorder or disease” is meant a disorder or disease of the nervous system including, but not limited to, epilepsy, anxiety, multiple sclerosis, strokes, head trauma, spinal cord injuries, and chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Also meant by “neurological disorder or disease” are those disease states and conditions in which an antispastic or anticonvulsant may be indicated, useful, recommended and/or prescribed.

By “neurodegenerative disease” is meant diseases such as, but not limited to, Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Neurodegeneration is the umbrella term for the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including death of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. Such diseases are believed to be incurable, resulting in progressive degeneration and/or death of neuron cells. As research progresses, however, many similarities appear that relate these diseases to one another on a sub-cellular level. Discovering these similarities offers hope for therapeutic advances that could ameliorate many diseases simultaneously.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by loss of neurons and synapses in the cerebral cortex and certain subcortical regions. This loss results in gross atrophy of the affected regions, including degeneration in the temporal lobe and parietal lobe, and parts of the frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus.

Alzheimer's disease has been hypothesized to be a protein misfolding disease (proteopathy), caused by accumulation of abnormally folded beta-amyloid plaques. Beta-amyloid is a fragment from a larger protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP), a transmembrane protein that penetrates through the neuron's membrane. APP is critical to neuron growth, survival and post-injury repair.

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and manifests as bradykinesia, rigidity, resting tremor and posture instability. The crude prevalence rate of PD has been reported to range from 15 per 100,000 to 12,500 per 100,000, and the incidence of PD from 15 per 100,000 to 328 per 100,000, with the disease being less common in Asian countries. Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system. It results from the death of dopamine-generating cells in the substantia nigra, a region of the midbrain; the cause of cell-death is unknown.

Huntington's disease causes astrogliosis and loss of medium spiny neurons. Areas of the brain are affected according to their structure and the types of neurons they contain, reducing in size as they cumulatively lose cells. The areas affected are mainly in the striatum, but also the frontal and temporal cortices. The striatum's subthalamic nuclei send control signals to the globus pallidus, which initiates and modulates motion. The weaker signals from subthalamic nuclei thus cause reduced initiation and modulation of movement, resulting in the characteristic movements of the disorder.

Mutant Huntingtin is an aggregate-prone protein. During the cells' natural clearance process, these proteins are retrogradely transported to the cell body for destruction by lysosomes. It is a possibility that these mutant protein aggregates damage the retrograde transport of important cargoes such as BDNF by damaging molecular motors as well as microtubules.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's Disease) is a disease in which motor neurons are selectively targeted for degeneration. In 1993, missense mutations in the gene encoding the antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) were discovered in subsets of patients with familial ALS. This discovery led researchers to focus on unlocking the mechanisms for SOD1-mediated diseases. However, the pathogenic mechanism underlying SOD1 mutant toxicity has yet to be resolved. More recently, TDP-43 and FUS protein aggregates have been implicated in some cases of the disease, and a mutation in chromosome 9 (C9orf72) is thought to be the most common known cause of sporadic ALS.

Recent independent research by Nagai et al. and Di Giorgio et al. provide in vitro evidence that the primary cellular sites where SOD1 mutations act are located on astrocytes. Astrocytes then cause the toxic effects on the motor neurons. The specific mechanism of toxicity still needs to be investigated, but the findings are significant because they implicate cells other than neuron cells in neurodegeneration.

It is believed that agents (e.g., pharmaceutically active small molecule agents) that have a neuroprotective and/or neuroregenerative effect may be effective treatments for neurodegenerative conditions. Evidence presented herein demonstrates that many of the compounds of the present invention have a neuroprotective and/or neuroregenerative effect.

By “anticonvulsant” is meant a compound capable of reducing the severity, number, or duration of convulsions produced, observed, or found in conditions such as generalized tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures, myoclonic seizures, simple partial seizures, complex partial seizures, secondarily generalized partial seizures, status epilepticus, and trauma-induced seizures as occur following head injury or surgery.

By “anticonvulsant activity” is meant efficacy in reducing the severity, number, or duration of convulsions produced, observed, or found in conditions such as generalized tonic-clonic seizures, absence seizures, myoclonic seizures, simple partial seizures, complex partial seizures, secondarily generalized partial seizures, status epilepticus, and trauma-induced seizures, as occur following head injury or surgery.

By “therapeutic dose” is meant an amount of a compound that relieves to some extent one or more symptoms of the disease or condition of the patient. Additionally, by “therapeutic dose” is meant an amount that returns to normal, either partially or completely, physiological or biochemical parameters associated with or causative of the disease or condition. Generally, it is an amount between about 0.1-15-20-30 mg/kg body weight, depending on the age, size, and disease associated with the patient. The dosing can be one to four times a day.

By “pharmaceutical composition” is meant a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, i.e., a formulation to which the compound can be added to dissolve or otherwise facilitate administration of the compound. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include water, saline, and physiologically buffered saline. Such a pharmaceutical composition is provided in a suitable dose. Such compositions are generally those which are approved for use in treatment of a specific disorder by the FDA or its equivalent in non-U.S. countries.

It is understood that certain of the compounds of the present invention have one or more chiral stereocenter(s). Such compounds may demonstrate preferred biological activity as a racemic (or diastereomeric) mixture, as a mixture of R and S enantiomers (or diastereomers), or as pure enantiomers (R or S) (or diastereomers). When one pure enantiomer shows preferred biological activity, it is this preferred enantiomer is referred to as the eutomer, whereas the less preferred, less biologically active enantiomer is referred to as the distomer.

METHODS FOR PREPARING PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS AND COMPOSITIONS, AND METHODS FOR ADMINISTRATION: As demonstrated herein, useful pharmaceutical formulations and compositions of this invention may be used to treat neurological disorders or diseases. While these preparations will typically be used in therapy for human patients, they may also be used to treat similar or identical diseases in other vertebrates such as other primates, domestic animals, farm animals such as swine, cattle, and poultry, and sports animals and pets such as horses, dogs, and cats.

The present invention also is directed to pharmaceutical formulations and compositions containing combinations of two or more of the active compounds described above. The compounds of the present invention can be prepared (formulated) according to known methods for preparing pharmaceutically useful compositions, whereby active agents are combined in a mixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier(s). A compound and/or a composition is said to be in a “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” if its administration can be tolerated by a recipient patient. Sterile phosphate-buffered saline is one example of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Other suitable carriers (e.g., saline and Ringer's solutions) are well known to those skilled in the art (see below).

The pharmaceutically acceptable carrier includes a suitable excipient and/or auxiliary whose administration is tolerated by the patient. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers which are known in the art include, but are not limited to, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, sucrose, dextrose, lactose, fructose, xylitol, sorbitol, starch, starch paste, cellulose derivatives, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sodium chloride, dextrins, stearic acid, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, vegetable oils, polyethylene glycol, sterile phosphate-buffered saline, saline, and Ringer's solutions, and mixtures thereof.

Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of organic acids (such as amino acids) which have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for commercial marketing include sodium, potassium, lithium, zinc, aluminum, calcium, and magnesium salts.

The compounds of the present invention and pharmaceutical compositions thereof are formulated as known in the art. For instance, the compound(s) of the present invention may be combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier(s) and processed into a desired dosage form. The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be produced or manufactured in a manner that is itself known, e.g., by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping, or lyophilizing processes which involve both the pharmaceutical composition of interest and its pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In general, the dosages of the compounds, formulations, and compositions described herein will vary depending upon such factors as the patient's age, weight, height, sex, general medical condition, and previous medical history. For purposes of therapy, a composition of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier are administered to a subject in need of such treatment in a therapeutically effective amount. The combination of active agents and carrier (formulation or composition) is said to be administered in a “therapeutically effective amount” if the amount administered is physiologically significant. A pharmaceutical composition is physiologically significant if its presence results in a detectable change in the physiology of a recipient patient. In the present context, for example, an anticonvulsant composition is physiologically significant if the presence of the composition results in the alleviation of one or more symptoms of epilepsy, such as seizures and/or convulsions. Further, the dose and perhaps dose frequency will also vary according to the age, body weight, and response of the individual patient. A program comparable to that discussed above may be used in veterinary medicine.

The compounds of the present invention can be administered orally using solid oral dosage forms such as, for example, enteric-coated tablets, caplets, gelcaps, sprinkles, or capsules, or via liquid oral dosage forms such as syrups or elixirs. Unit solid oral dosage forms preferably contain appropriate amounts of active compounds per tablet or capsule such that they can be taken 1-2 at a time for a maximum of two times per day. Liquid formulations can also be employed with active compounds so as to provide 1-2 teaspoonfuls per dose. Furthermore, corresponding reduced dosage pediatric chewable and liquid oral dosage forms can also be prepared and administered. These compounds can also be added to foods and beverages in the form of drops (with a dropper from a “concentrate” preparation) for oral administration. In addition, the compounds of the present invention may also be formulated into chewing gum to facilitate oral delivery and absorption. Appropriate dosages for each of the compounds used in the formulations and compositions of the present invention can be discerned from the foregoing descriptions by those skilled in the art.

Alternatively, the compounds of the present invention can be administered by injection or other systemic routes, such as transdermal or transmucosal administration, for example, nasally, sublingually, buccally, vaginally, or rectally, via suppositories. Other routes of administration (e.g., useful in veterinary applications) include intestinal and parenteral delivery, including intramuscular, subcutaneous, and/or intramedullary injections, as well as intrathecal, direct intracerebroventricular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, or intraocular injections. Oral administration is much more convenient, however, and therefore is preferred.

The present invention thus contemplates a variety of compounds that are suitable for oral, parenteral, transdermal, transmucosal, intranasal, sublingual, buccal, or rectal administration. It is further understood that the compounds of the present invention can be used in combination with other pharmaceutically active ingredients to prepare still other novel pharmaceutical compositions.

DEMONSTRATING THERAPY-IMPLICATING AND THERAPEUTICALLY RELEVANT ACTIVITY: The suitability and therapeutic effectiveness of a given pharmaceutical formulation or composition for the alleviation of symptoms, as discussed above, can be demonstrated by using the animal models, testing, and screening methods.

The therapeutic effects of the compounds of the invention described above, combined with a general lack of toxicity, make the compounds of the present invention ideal agents for the treatment of the conditions described above. With this background, the present invention will be understood more readily by those skilled in the art by reference to the examples below, which are provided for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting of the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1. Preparation of Compound A [3-(4-Chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyramide]

A solution of 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyric acid (6.1 g, 41.9 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) and DMF (0.2 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (5.2 mL, 7.45 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was azeotroped by toluene (50 mL).

Ammonia (gas) was bubbled through the solution of the acid chloride [3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyryl chloride] in anhydrous THE (100 mL) at 5 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under static nitrogen.

The white precipitate (ammonium chloride) was filtered and washed with THE (100 mL). The filtrate and wash-solution were combined and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was re-dissolved in ethyl acetate (300 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was washed with H₂O, 1.0 M HCl, a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and brine solution. The ethyl acetate solution was then dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was triturated with a chilled solution of diethyl ether and hexane (50:50). This afforded 4.22 g of white flakes [3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyramide] (69% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 2. Preparation of Compound B [3-(4-Chlorophenyl)-3,N-dimethylbutyramide]

A solution of 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-methylbutyric acid (5.95 g, 28 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) and DMF (0.2 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (5.2 mL, 7.45 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was azeotroped by toluene (50 mL).

The residue was dissolved in 150 mL of dry THE and treated with methylamine solution (2.0 M in THF, 45 mL, 84 mmol) at 5 degrees Celsius. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under static nitrogen.

The white precipitate was filtered and washed with THE (100 mL). The filtrate and wash-solution were combined and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was re-dissolved in diethyl ether (300 mL). The ether layer was washed with H₂O, 1.0 M HCl, a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and brine solution. The ether solution was then dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was triturated with a chilled solution of diethyl ether and hexane (50:50). This afforded 5.46 g of white flakes [3-(4-chlorophenyl)-3,N-dimethylbutyramide] (86% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 3. Preparation of Compound C [(R)-3-Phenylbutyramide]

A solution of (R)-3-phenylbutyric acid (4 g, 24.36 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (75 mL) and DMF (0.1 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (3.0 mL, 34.0 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was azeotroped by toluene (50 mL).

Ammonia (gas) was bubbled through the solution of the acid chloride [(R)-3-phenylbutyrl chloride] in anhydrous THE (100 mL) at 5 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under static nitrogen.

The white precipitate (ammonium chloride) was filtered and washed with THE (100 mL). The filtrate and wash-solution were combined and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was re-dissolved in ethyl acetate (300 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was washed with H₂O, 1.0 M HCl, a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and brine solution. The ethyl acetate solution was then dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. Crude material was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 40+M 0344-1, 95:5, CH₂Cl₂: MeOH). The resulting off-white solid was triturated with a chilled solution of diethyl ether and hexane (50:50). This afforded 2.9 g of white solid [(R)-3-phenylbutyramide] (73% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 4. Preparation of Compound D [3-(3-Fluorophenyl)butyramide]

In a 3-necked, 500-mL round-bottomed flask, a suspension of sodium hydride (60% in oil, 1.1 eq. 80 mmol, 3.20 g) in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF, 100 mL) under nitrogen was treated drop-wise with a solution of triethyl phosphonoacetate (1.2 eq. 87 mmol, 19.50 g) in DMF (50 mL). After the addition, the reaction mixture was heated in a water bath (100° C.) until all visible signs of the sodium hydride were gone (30 minutes). The mixture was cooled to ambient temperature and then treated with a solution of 3′-fluoroacetophenone (1.0 eq. 10 g, 72.4 mmol) in DMF (50 mL). The reaction mixture was stirred for 2 hours at ambient temperature and a 1-mL aliquot was removed and quenched in water (˜2 mL). Diethyl ether (˜2 mL) was added to this and the mixture was equilibrated. Analysis of the organic layer by GC/MS showed complete consumption of the starting benzophenone. As a result, the reaction mixture was quenched by the addition of water. The mixture was transferred to a large round-bottomed flask and the majority of the solvents were removed using a rotary evaporator. The mixture was cooled and transferred to a separatory funnel using [a] diethyl ether (500 mL) and water (250 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the aqueous layer was removed. The organic layer was washed an additional 3 times with water (3×250 mL). GC/MS analysis of this solution showed only product (with no remaining phosphonoacetate). The organic solution was dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated to afford 18.09 g of crude material (containing oil from the sodium hydride).

A solution of crude of [3-(3-fluorophenyl)-but-2-enoic acid ethyl ester] (9 g, 0.015 mmol) in methanol (75 mL) was treated with Pd/C (10%, 450 mg). The reaction mixture was subjected to hydrogenation at 45 psi for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was passed through a Celite plug to remove palladium on carbon. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure. This afforded 10.1 g of a colorless oil [3-(3-fluorophenyl)butyric acid ethyl ester]. The material was determined to be 94% pure by GC/MS analysis. This product was used without purification (to remove mineral oil).

A crude solution of 3-(3-fluorophenyl)butyric acid ethyl ester, 10.1 g, 48 mmol] in ethanol (50 mL) was treated with 10 M NaOH solution (50 mL, 857 mmol). The reaction mixture was refluxed overnight. The reaction mixture was dried under reduced pressure in order to get rid of the ethyl alcohol. The resulting residue was re-dissolved in 150 mL of water. The mixture was transferred to a separatory funnel using water (50 mL) and diethyl ether (200 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the ether layer was removed. The aqueous layer was acidified by HCl solution (pH-2) and extracted with diethyl ether (300 mL). The organic layer was dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure. This afforded 8.1 g of an orange viscous oil, 3-(3-fluorophenyl)butyric acid (92.6% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis.

A solution of 3-(3-fluorophenyl)butyric acid (8.1 g, 44.46 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) and DMF (0.7 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (5.43 mL, 7.9 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was azeotroped by toluene (70 mL).

Ammonia (gas) was bubbled through the solution of the acid chloride [3-(3-fluoro-phenyl)butyryl chloride] in anhydrous THE (100 mL) at 5 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under static nitrogen.

The white precipitate (ammonium chloride) was filtered and washed with THE (200 mL). The filtrate and wash-solution were combined and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was re-dissolved in ethyl acetate (350 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was washed with H₂O, 1.0 M HCl, a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and brine solution. The ethyl acetate solution was then dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was triturated with a chilled solution of diethyl ether and hexane (50:50). This afforded 6.8 g of off-white powder of 3-(3-fluorophenyl)butyramide (84% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis (a mixture of R and S enantiomers). ¹H-NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Examples 5-14. Preparation of Compounds E-N

Compounds E-N were prepared using the corresponding acetophenones (shown in Table 1 below) with the method used for the preparation of Compound D in Example 4, above. In addition, Compound M (Example 13) and Compound N (Example 14) were prepared using the corresponding amines, i.e., methylamine and dimethylamine, respectively. All of the final products were determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H-NMR spectroscopy of each final product gave signals consistent with its structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

TABLE 1 Example Weight % Product Chemical Corresponding No. Formula (g) Yield Name Acetophenone 5 E 3.2 91 3-(4-fluorophenyl)- 4′-fluoroacetophenone butyramide 6 F 5.7 79 3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)- 4′-(trifluoromethyl)acetophenone phenyl]butyramide 7 G 6.8 84 3-[3-(trifluoromethyl)- 3′-(trifluoromethyl)acetophenone phenyl]butyramide 8 H 3.8 81 3-[4-(trifluoromethoxy)- 4′-(trifluoromethoxy)acetophenone phenyl]butyramide 9 I 1.9 86 3-[3-(trifluoromethoxy)- 3′-(trifluoromethoxy)acetophenone phenyl]butyramide 10 J 2.3 84 3-(3-chloro-4-methoxy- 3′-chloro-4′-methoxyacetophenone phenyl)butyramide 11 K 3.6 70 3-(3,4-ethylenedioxy- 3′,4′-ethylenedioxyacetophenone phenyl)butyramide 12 L 2.5 91 3-(3,4-methylenedioxy- 3′,4′-methylenedioxyacetophenone phenyl)butyramide 13 M 2.7 90 N-methyl-3-(3,4- 3′,4′-methylenedioxyacetophenone methylenedioxy- phenyl)butyramide 14 N 2.3 73 N,N-dimethyl-3-(3,4- 3′,4′-methylenedioxyacetophenone methylenedioxy- phenyl)butyramide

Example 15. Preparation of Compound O [3-(4-Cyanophenoxy)butyramide]

A solution of 4 g (0.1 mol) of sodium hydroxide in 100 mL of H₂O and 11.9 g (0.1 mol) of 4-cyanophenol was heated at reflux for 15 minutes. β-Butyrolactone (8.6 g, 0.1 mol) was added to the refluxing solution over 15 hours. The reaction was then cooled to room temperature. The reaction solution was transferred to a separatory funnel using water (200 mL) and diethyl ether (200 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the ether layer was removed. The aqueous layer was acidified by HCl solution (pH-2) and extracted with ethyl acetate (300 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 10.78 g of crude product. This crude material was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 65i, 9:1 CH₂Cl₂:MeOH), which afforded 9.87 g of a pale-yellow viscous oil [3-(4-cyanophenoxy)butyric acid], which solidified upon standing at room temperature. This material was determined to be 96% pure by GC/MS analysis. This material was used without further purification.

A crude solution of [3-(4-cyanophenoxy)butyric acid] (10.8 g, 52.6 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) and DMF (0.21 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (6 mL, 68.4 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure.

Ammonia (gas) was bubbled through the solution of the acid chloride [3-(4-cyanophenoxy)butyryl chloride] in anhydrous CH₂Cl₂ (150 mL) at 5 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under static nitrogen.

The white precipitate (ammonium chloride) was filtered and washed with CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL). The filtrate and wash-solution were combined and evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting white solid was re-dissolved in ether (250 mL). The ether layer washed with H₂O, 1.0 M HCl, a saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and brine solution. The ether solution was then dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and evaporated under reduced pressure. Crude material was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 40+M 0344-1, 95:5, CH₂Cl₂:MeOH). This afforded 2.987 g of an off-white solid [3-(4-cyanophenoxy)butyramide] (29% yield). This material was determined to be 97% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 16. Preparation of Compound P [trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxamide]

A solution trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (2.1 g., 12.8 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL) and DMF (0.20 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (1.5 mL, 16.7 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure.

Ammonia (gas) was bubbled through the solution of the acid chloride [trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxyl chloride] in anhydrous CH₂Cl₂ (100 mL) at 5 degrees Celsius for 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature under nitrogen.

The reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure and the resulting residue re-dissolved in an ethyl acetate/water mixture. The mixture was transferred to a separatory funnel using H₂O (60 mL) and ethyl acetate (100 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the aqueous phase was removed. The organic layer was washed with 1.0 M HCl (10 mL), H₂O (70 mL), and brine (75 mL), consecutively. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered, and [the] excess solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting light-brown solid was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 40+S 90:10 CH₂Cl₂:MeOH), which afforded 1.127 g of white powder [trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxamide] (54% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H-NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 17. Preparation of Compound Q [trans-2-Phenylcyclopropane-carboxylic acid-((S)-1-carbamoyl-3-methylbutyl)amide]

A solution of trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (0.905 g., 5.6 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) and DMF (0.05 mL) was treated with oxalyl chloride (0.65 mL, 7.23 mmol) at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution was stirred at room temperature overnight under nitrogen. The excess dichloromethane was removed under reduced pressure.

The solution of the acid chloride [trans-2-phenylcyclopropane-1-carboxyl chloride] in CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL) was added drop-wise in to a solution of H-Leu-NH₂ [L-leucine amide, (S)-2-amino-4-methyl-n-valeramide] (0.761 g, 5.8 mmol) and triethylamine (1.13 g, 11.1 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (60 mL) at zero degrees Celsius. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature under nitrogen overnight.

The reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure and the resulting residue was re-dissolved in an ethyl acetate/water mixture. The mixture was transferred to a separatory funnel using H₂O (50 mL) and ethyl acetate (80 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the aqueous phase was removed. The organic layer was washed with 1.0 M HCl (20 mL), H₂O (90 mL), and brine (120 mL), consecutively. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered, and the excess solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting orange-brown solid was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 40+M 90:10, CH₂Cl₂:MeOH), which afforded 0.365 g of white powder [trans-2-phenylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid-((S)-1-carbamoyl-3-methylbutyl)-amide] (24% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS analysis. ¹H-NMR spectroscopy gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 18. Preparation of Compound U [2-[1-(4-Methoxyphenyl) cyclopropyl]-acetamide]

A stirred suspension of lithium aluminum hydride (0.211 mol) in anhydrous ether (200 mL) is treated with 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid (0.1406 mol) in 100 mL of ether at 0° C. The reaction mixture is then stirred at room temperature under nitrogen overnight. The reaction mixture is quenched by the drop-wise addition of 100 mL of deionized H₂O. The mixture is filtered and the cake solid is washed with diethyl ether (1 L). The filtrate mixture (ether and water) is transferred into a separatory funnel. The organic layer is separated from the aqueous layer and washed with brine solution. The ether layer is dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure at room temperature. This affords [1-(4-methoxy-phenyl)-cyclopropyl]-methanol.

A neat solution of [1-(4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropyl]methanol (0.074 mol) is treated with phosphorous tribromide (0.081 mol) drop-wise at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution is heated to 130° C. and the temperature is maintained for 6 hours. The reaction mixture is cooled down to room temperature and the orange precipitate is filtered off. The orange precipitate is washed with 200 mL of diethyl ether. The filtrate is transferred into a separatory funnel using 150 mL of water and 200 mL of diethyl ether. The mixture is equilibrated and the aqueous layer is extracted one more time with 200 mL of diethyl ether. The ether extracts and ether-wash are combined and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and brine. Then the ether extracts are dried over magnesium sulfate and the excess diethyl ether is removed under reduced pressure at 30° C. This affords 1-(1-bromomethyl-cyclopropyl)-4-methoxybenzene. The crude material is converted into the corresponding nitrile without further purification.

A crude solution of 1-(1-bromomethyl-cyclopropyl)-4-methoxybenzene (60.3 mmol) in dimethyl sulfoxide (60 mL) is treated with sodium cyanide (180.7 mmol). The reaction mixture is heated to 95 degrees Celsius overnight under nitrogen. The reaction mixture is transferred to a separatory funnel using brine (150 mL) and chloroform (300 mL). The reaction mixture is equilibrated and the aqueous layer is removed. The aqueous layer is extracted an additional two times with chloroform (2×300 mL). The combined organic extract is dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford [1-(4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropyl]acetonitrile. This crude material is used in the next step (hydrolysis of the nitrile to the corresponding amide) without further purification. [Alternatively, the corresponding carboxylic acid can be obtained from this material by acid hydrolysis (e.g., using sulfuric acid).]

A solution of [1-(4-methoxyphenyl)cyclopropyl]acetonitrile (60.4 mmol) in DMSO (75 mL) is treated with H₂O₂ (50% w/w) (434 mmol) and potassium carbonate (121 mmol) at zero degrees Celsius. The reaction mixture is stirred at room temperature over the weekend. The reaction mixture is transferred into a separatory funnel using water (100 mL) and CH₂Cl₂ (200 mL). The mixture is equilibrated and the CH₂Cl₂ layer is removed. The aqueous layer is extracted two additional times with CH₂Cl₂ (2×300 mL). The combined CH₂Cl₂ extracts are washed 5 consecutive times with water (5×200 mL) followed by a brine (500 mL) wash, dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure, which affords 2-[1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-cyclopropyl]-acetamide.

Example 19. Preparation of Compound V [3-(4-Chlorophenoxy)-3-methylbutyr-amide]

A stirred suspension of lithium aluminum hydride (0.211 mol) in anhydrous ether (200 mL) is treated with 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-methylpropanic acid (0.1406 mol) in 100 mL of ether at 0° C. The reaction mixture is stirred at room temperature under nitrogen overnight. The reaction mixture is quenched by the drop-wise addition of 100 mL of deionized H₂O. The mixture is filtered and the cake solid is washed with diethyl ether (1 L). The filtrate mixture (ether and water) is transferred into a separatory funnel. The organic layer is separated from the aqueous layer and washed with brine solution. The ether layer is dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure at room temperature. This affords 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-methylpropan-1-ol.

A neat solution of 2-(4-chlorophenoxy)-2-methylpropan-1-ol (0.074 mol) is treated with phosphorous tribromide (0.081 mol) drop-wise at 0° C. under static nitrogen. The reaction solution is heated to 130° C. and the temperature is maintained for 6 hours. The reaction mixture is cooled down to room temperature and the orange precipitate is filtered off. The orange precipitate is washed with 200 mL of diethyl ether. The filtrate is transferred into a separatory funnel using 150 mL of water and 200 mL of diethyl ether. The mixture is equilibrated and the aqueous layer is extracted one more time with 200 mL of diethyl ether. The ether extracts and ether-wash are combined and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and brine. Then the ether extract is dried over magnesium sulfate and the excess diethyl ether is removed under reduced pressure at 30° C. This affords 1-(2-bromo-1,1-dimethylethoxy)-4-chlorobenzene. The crude 1-(2-bromo-1,1-dimethylethoxy)-4-chlorobenzene is converted into the corresponding nitrile without further purification.

A crude solution of 1-(2-bromo-1,1-dimethylethoxy)-4-chlorobenzene (60.3 mmol) in dimethyl sulfoxide (60 mL) is treated with sodium cyanide (180.7 mmol). The reaction mixture is heated to 95 degrees Celsius overnight under nitrogen. The reaction mixture is transferred into a separatory funnel using brine (150 mL) and chloroform (300 mL). The reaction mixture is equilibrated and the aqueous layer is removed. The aqueous layer is extracted an additional two times with chloroform (2×300 mL). The combined organic extracts are dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3-methylbutyronitrile. This crude material is used in the next step (hydrolysis of the nitrile into the corresponding amide) without further purification. [Alternatively, the corresponding carboxylic acid can be obtained from this material by acid hydrolysis (e.g., using sulfuric acid).]

A solution of 3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3-methylbutyronitrile (60.4 mmol) in DMSO (75 mL) is treated with H₂O₂ (50% w/w) (434 mmol) and potassium carbonate (121 mmol) at zero degrees Celsius. The reaction mixture is stirred at room temperature over the weekend. The reaction mixture is transferred into a separatory funnel using water (100 mL) and CH₂Cl₂ (200 mL). The mixture is equilibrated and the CH₂Cl₂ layer is removed. The aqueous layer is extracted two additional times with CH₂Cl₂ (2×300 mL). The combined CH₂Cl₂ extracts are washed 5 consecutive times with water (5×200 mL) followed by a brine (500 mL) wash, dried over anhydrous MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated under reduced pressure, which affords 3-(4-chlorophenoxy)-3-methylbutyramide.

Example 20. Preparation of Compound AG [(R)-3-(4-Trifluoromethylphenyl)-butyramide]

Acetylacetonatobis(ethylene)rhodium(I) (0.3 mmol), (S)-(−)-2,2′-Bis(diphenyl-phosphino)-1,1′-binaphthalene (0.045 mmol), 4-(trifluoromethyl)phenylboronic acid (2 mmol), K₂CO₃ (0.5 mmol), and but-2-enoic acid amide (1 mmol) are added into a 25-mL round-bottomed flask containing a magnetic stirrer bar, a septum inlet, and a reflux condenser. The flask is flashed with argon and then charged with 1,4-dioxane (3 mL) and de-ionized H₂O (0.5 mL). The reaction mixture is stirred for 16 hours at 100° C. The (R)-3-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)butyramide is extracted with ethyl acetate, washed with brine, and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. Chromatography over silica gel gives the desired product.

Example 21. Preparation of Compound AA [3-(4-Trifluoromethylphenyl)-pentanamide]

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide (1.0 M, 50 mL) was dropwise added a solution of trimethylphosphonoacetate, keeping the temperature below 10° C. The solution was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for an additional five minutes, after which a solution of 4′-(trifluoromethyl)propiophenone in THE (25 mL) was added in one portion. The solution was slowly heated to 50° C. for eight hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature, then diluted with a 10% NH₄Cl solution (100 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a white solid which was recrystallized from hexane/ethyl acetate to give 5.42 grams of 3-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)pent-2-enoic acid methyl ester intermediate (85% yield).

To a solution of 3-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)pent-2-enoic acid methyl ester in THF/MeOH was added a solution of sodium hydroxide in H₂O (15 mL). The resulting solution was stirred at room temperature for 12 hours, and acetic acid (3 grams) was added. The solution was then concentrated to an oil. The oil was dissolved in ethyl acetate (100 mL) and washed with H₂O (3×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated to a semi-solid which was then dissolved in MeOH/THF (2:1, 50 mL) and shaken with 10% Pd/C under 50 psi of hydrogen pressure for 24 hours. TLC showed that the reaction was incomplete. Additional 10% Pd/C was added (500 mg) and the suspension was shaken for an additional 24 hours. The suspension was then filtered and the filtrate concentrated to a semi-solid (4.97 g). The solid was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) and the resulting solution cooled to 0° C. To this solution was added oxalyl chloride followed by one drop of DMF from a 9-inch disposable pipette. The solution was stirred for 8 hours and then concentrated to a solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL). The solution was again concentrated to a semi-solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL), and the resulting solution added dropwise to a chilled (5° C.) and mechanically stirred solution of NH₄OH (10 mL) over approximately five minutes. The suspension was then concentrated to a gummy/aqueous mixture which was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a crude amber-solid which was adsorbed onto silica gel (50 g) using CH₂Cl₂/THF. The solid was then chromatographed on silica gel (EtOAc/hexane) to give 2.25 grams of off-white solid (37% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by LC/MS. H-NMR gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 22. Preparation of Compound AW [3-(4-Isopropylphenyl)butyramide]

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide (1.0 M, 56 mL) was dropwise added a solution of trimethylphosphonoacetate, keeping the temperature below 10° C. The solution was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for an additional five minutes after which a solution of p-isobutylacetophenone in THE (25 mL) was added in one portion. The solution was slowly heated to 65° C. and allowed to reflux for thirty hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature then diluted with a 10% NH₄Cl solution (100 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and filtrate concentrated to a white solid which was recrystallized from hexane/ethyl acetate to give 5.93 grams of 3-(4-isobutylphenyl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester intermediate (89.9% yield).

To a solution of 3-(4-isobutylphenyl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester in THF/MeOH was added a solution of sodium hydroxide in H₂O (15 mL). The resulting solution was stirred at room temperature for 12 hours and acetic acid (3 grams) was added. The solution was then concentrated to an oil. The oil was dissolved in ethyl acetate (150 mL) and washed with H₂O (3×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated to a solid (4.98 g) which was then dissolved in MeOH/THF (2:1, 50 mL) and shaken with 10% Pd/C under 50 psi of hydrogen pressure for 24 hours. TLC showed that the reaction was incomplete. Additional 10% Pd/C was added (500 mg) and the suspension was shaken for an additional 24 hours. The suspension was then filtered and the filtrate concentrated to a solid (4.75 g). The solid was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) and the resulting solution cooled to 0° C. To this solution was added oxalyl chloride followed by one drop of DMF from a 9-inch disposable pipette. The solution was stirred for six hours and then concentrated to a solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL). The solution was again concentrated to a semi-solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL), and the resulting solution added dropwise to a chilled (5° C.) and mechanically stirred solution of NH₄OH (10 mL) over approximately five minutes. The suspension was then concentrated to a solid/aqueous mixture which was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a crude solid which was adsorbed onto silica gel (50 g) using CH₂Cl₂/THF. The solid was then chromatographed on silica gel (EtOAc/Hexane) to give 2.5 grams of off-white solid (40% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by LC/MS. H-NMR gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 23. Preparation of Compound AE [3-(6-Methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)-butyramide]

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide (1.0 M, 50 mL) was dropwise added a solution of trimethylphosphonoacetate, keeping the temperature below 10° C. The solution was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for an additional ten minutes after which a solution of 2-acetyl-6-methoxynaphthalene in THE (20 mL) was added in one portion. The solution was slowly heated to 50° C. for fourteen hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature then diluted with a 10% NH₄Cl solution (100 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and filtrate concentrated to a white solid which was recrystallized from hexane/ethyl acetate to give 5.88 grams of 3-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester intermediate (92% yield).

To a solution of 3-(6-methoxynaphthalen-2-yl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester in THF/MeOH was added a solution of sodium hydroxide in H₂O (15 mL). The resulting solution was stirred at room temperature for 12 hours and acetic acid (3 grams) was added. The solution was then concentrated to a solid residue. The solid was dissolved in ethyl acetate (150 mL) and washed with H₂O (3×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated to a solid which was then dissolved in MeOH/THF (2:1, 50 mL) and shaken with 10% Pd/C under 50 psi of hydrogen pressure for 24 hours. TLC showed that the reaction was incomplete. Additional 10% Pd/C was added (500 mg) and the suspension was shaken for an additional 24 hours. The suspension was then filtered and the filtrate concentrated to a semi-solid (4.97 g). The solid was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) and the resulting solution cooled to 0° C. To this solution was added oxalyl chloride followed by one drop of DMF from a 9-inch disposable pipette. The solution was stirred for six hours and then concentrated to a solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL). The solution was again concentrated to a semi-solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL), and the resulting solution added dropwise to a chilled (5° C.) and mechanically stirred solution of NH₄OH (10 mL) over approximately fifteen minutes. The suspension was then concentrated to a gummy/aqueous mixture which was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a crude solid which was adsorbed onto silica gel (50 g) using CH₂Cl₂/THF. The solid was then chromatographed on silica gel (EtOAc/hexane) to give 1.87 grams of off-white solid (32% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by LC/MS. H-NMR gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 24. Preparation of Compound AX [3-(2-Fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)butyramide]

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of 2-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)propionic acid in THE was added isobutyl chloroformate followed by dropwise addition of TEA. The resulting white slurry was allowed to stir for 1 hour and then diluted with THE (50 mL) and filtered. The filter cake was washed with additional THE (50 mL) and the filtrate was concentrated to approximately 50 mL using a rotary evaporator. The concentrated filtrate was then stirred at −20° C. and a solution of NaBH₄ in H₂O (20 mL) was dropwise added over a period of 15 minutes. The resulting suspension was stirred for 2 hours at 0° C., diluted with water (200 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate layers were combined and washed with 1.0 N HCl solution (100 mL) followed by a 5% bicarbonate solution wash (100 mL). The ethyl acetate solution was then concentrated to an oily residue of 2-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)propanol (4.47 g, 95% yield).

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of 2-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)propanol in CH₂Cl₂ was added methanesulfonyl chloride followed by dropwise addition of TEA. The resulting white slurry was allowed to stir for 1 hour and then diluted with H₂O (200 mL). The suspension was extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (2×100 mL). The CH₂Cl₂ layers were combined and with water (2×100 mL) and a 5% NH₄OH solution (100 mL). The CH₂Cl₂ layer was then washed with additional H₂O (200 mL) and dried over MgSO₄. The CH₂Cl₂ layer was concentrated to an oily residue which was dissolved in anhydrous DMF (50 mL). This solution was treated with NaCN and stirred at 60° C. for 14 hours. The TLC indicated one major less polar eluting product (relative to mesylate) and several minor less polar eluting products relative to both the major and mesylate products. The reaction was cooled to room temperature and diluted with H₂O (100 mL). The solution was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL), dried over MgSO₄, and concentrated to an oily residue which was chromatographed on silica gel (90% Hex, 10% EtOAc) to give 3-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)butyronitrile as an oil which slowly solidified on standing at room temperature (2.05 g, 49% yield).

To a solution of 3-(2-fluoro-biphenyl-4-yl)butyronitrile in tert-butyl alcohol was added 1.87 g of finely powdered potassium hydroxide. The resulting suspension was stirred and heated to 70° C. for 2.5 hours and cooled to room temperature. The reaction suspension was diluted with 1.0 N HCl solution (100 mL) and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and washed with 5% bicarbonate solution (100 mL) and then with H₂O (100 mL). The organics were then dried over MgSO₄, and concentrated to a white solid which was re-crystallized several times with EtOAc/Hex to give white flaky prisms (1.62 g, 75% yield).

Example 25. Preparation of Compound AY [3-(4-Morpholin-4-yl-phenyl)-butyramide]

To a chilled (0° C.) solution of potassium tert-butoxide (1.0 M, 37.1 mL) was dropwise added a solution of trimethylphosphonoacetate, keeping the temperature below 25° C. The solution was then allowed to warm to room temperature and stirred for an additional five minutes, after which a solution of 4-morpholinoacetophenone in THF (20 mL) was added in one portion. The solution was slowly heated to 60° C. for 36 hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature, then diluted with a 1.0N HCl solution (100 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The organic layers were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a white solid which was recrystallized from hexane/ethyl acetate to give 3.33 grams of 3-(4-morpholinophenyl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester intermediate (69.9% yield).

To a solution of 3-(4-morpholinophenyl)but-2-enoic acid methyl ester in THF/MeOH (1:1) was added a solution of sodium hydroxide in H₂O (15 mL). The resulting solution was stirred at room temperature for 15 hours and acetic acid (3 grams) was added. The pH of the solution was measured at 6.5. The solution was then concentrated to an oil. The oil was dissolved in ethyl acetate (150 mL) and washed with H₂O (3×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated to an amorphous solid which was then dissolved in MeOH (50 mL) and shaken with 10% Pd/C under 50 psi of hydrogen pressure for 8 hours. TLC showed that the reaction was complete. The suspension was then filtered and the filtrate concentrated to a semi-solid (2.77 g). The semi-solid was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL) and the resulting solution cooled to 0° C. To this solution was added oxalyl chloride followed by one drop of DMF from a 9-inch disposable pipette. The solution was stirred for four hours and then concentrated to a solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (30 mL). The solution was again concentrated to a semi-solid which was dissolved in additional CH₂Cl₂ (50 mL), and the resulting solution added dropwise to a chilled (5° C.) and mechanically stirred solution of NH₄OH (15 mL) over approximately five minutes. The solution was then concentrated to a solid/aqueous mixture which was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×100 mL). The ethyl acetate extracts were combined and dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and the filtrate concentrated to a crude solid which was adsorbed onto silica gel (50 g) using CH₂Cl₂/THF. The solid was then chromatographed on silica gel (EtOAc/hexane) to give 2.1 grams of beige plates (46% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by LC/MS. H-NMR gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 26. Preparation of Compound Q-1 [trans-2-Phenylcyclopropane-carboxylic acid-((S)-1-carbamoyl-propyl)amide]

A solution of trans-2-phenyl-cyclopropanecarbonylchloride in CH₂Cl₂ (20 mL) was added dropwise into a solution of L-2-aminobutanamide hydrochloride (1.61 g, 11.6 mmol) and triethylamine (3.36 g, 33.2 mmol) in CH₂Cl₂ (60 ml) at zero degree Celsius. The reaction mixture stirred at room temperature under nitrogen overnight.

The reaction mixture was evaporated under reduced pressure and resulting residue re-dissolved in ethyl acetate/water mixture. The mixture was transferred into a separatory funnel using H₂O (50 mL) and ethyl acetate (80 mL). The mixture was equilibrated and the aqueous phase was removed. The organic layer was washed with 1.0M HCl (20 mL), H₂O (90 mL) and brine (120 mL) consecutively. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered, and excess solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The resulting orange-brown solid was purified using a Biotage SP4 System (Column Si 40+M 90:10, CH₂Cl₂/MeOH), which afforded 0.365 g of white powder (24% yield). This material was determined to be 100% pure by GC/MS. ¹H-NMR gave signals consistent with the product's structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

FIGS. 4A-4O illustrate additional examples of the syntheses of various compounds and key intermediates (Schemes 1-15), drawn from the literature of synthetic organic chemistry, from which skilled artisans will be able to envision the preparation of various additional compounds of the present invention.

Example 27. Synthesis of Racemic Compound H

Preparation of Compound 3

To a one-gallon autoclave was added 4′-trifluoromethoxyacetophenone (85.0 g, 0.416 mol), (carbethoxymethylene) triphenylphosphorane (159.6 g, 0.458 mol, 1.1 eq.) and toluene (1.0 L). The mixture was heated to 140° C. and stirred overnight. The mixture was cooled to ambient temperature and transferred to a 5 L round-bottom flask. The solvent was removed by rotovap and the residue was diluted with hexanes (2.0 L). The solid was removed by filtration and washed with hexanes (1.0 L). The filtrate was concentrated and purified by silica gel chromatography to afford the compound 3 (94.2 g, 82.5%) as a colorless oil.

Preparation of Compound 4

To compound 3 (130.0 g, 0.474 mol) in ethanol (350 mL) was added 6N NaOH (474 mL, 1.9 mol, 6.0 eq.). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The mixture was then concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was re-dissolved in water (500 mL) and extracted by ether (2×300 mL). The aqueous phase was neutralized by 3N HCl to pH-2 and extracted by ethyl acetate (2×500 mL). The combined organic layers were dried over MgSO₄, filtered and concentrated to dryness to give the compound 4 (106.0 g, 90.8%) as a white solid.

Preparation of Compound 5

To the compound 4 (106.0 g, 0.431 mol) in THE (600 mL) was added Pd/C (10%, 5.0 g). The mixture was subjected to hydrogenation at ambient pressure overnight and filtered through a Celite plug. The filtrate was concentrated to afford compound 5 (107.0 g, 100%) as a colorless oil which solidified upon standing at room temperature.

Preparation of Compound 6

To a solution of compound 5 (70.0 g, 0.282 mol) in DCM (1.0 L), was added DMF (1.0 mL) and oxalyl chloride (34.9 mL, 0.40 mol, 1.47 eq.) at 0° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The solvent and excess reagents were removed under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was azeotroped by toluene (300 mL) to give compound 6 (crude) which was used for the next step without further purification.

Preparation of Compound H

To a solution of compound 6 (crude) in anhydrous THE (1.2 L) was bubbled ammonia (gas) for 30 min. at 5° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature overnight. The solid was filtered and washed with THE (500 mL). The filtrate was evaporated under reduced pressure. The resulting solid was dissolved in ethyl acetate (2.0 L), washed with water (500 mL), 1.0M HCl (300 mL), sat. NaHCO₃ (500 mL), and brine (500 mL), and dried over MgSO₄. After filtration and evaporation of the solvent, the obtained solid was triturated with ether/hexanes (1:1, 300 mL) and dried in a vacuum oven (40° C./2 h) to give compound 7 (61.0 g, 87.5%) as a white solid: mp=84-86° C.

Analytical data for compound H [300 MHz proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrum, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), liquid chromatography/mass selective detection (LC/MSD), and mass spectrum (MS)] are shown in FIGS. 5-8.

Example 28. Baseline Separation of Racemic Compound H into its Enantiomers, Compounds BX and BY, by Means of Chiral Liquid Chromatography (LC)

The objective of this work was to chirally separate a total of 37.7 g of racemic compound 7 to obtain an approximate 85% yield of both (each) of its enantiomers. The enantiomeric purity requirement was >98% e.e. for both of the enantiomers.

Preparative Chromatographic Conditions

The operating conditions used for the separation process were as follows:

Column: R, R-WhelkO-1 10 μm, 5 cm id×25 cm L

Mobile Phase: Hex/MTBE/EtOH/TFA=50/45/5/0.1

Flow rate: 60 ml/min

Temperature: 25° C.

UV detection: 210 nm

Separation and Isolation

Feed solubility was 15 g/L in the mobile phase. Stirring and heating were required to dissolve the feed. The feed solution was filtered through a 0.2-μm filter before use. A total of 37.7 g of racemate was processed. Injection volume was 20 ml every 14.5 min.

The fractions collected from the chromatographic process were concentrated using bench-top rotary evaporators at 40° C. and 50 mbar. The products did not crystallize and remain liquidly after overnight under vacuum. The weight of each peak was well over the expected amount. It was decided to wash the products with water to remove the extra weight, most likely resulting from the TFA used in the mobile phase. Each peak was dissolved in dichloromethane and washed twice with water. The weights which remained after drying in a vacuum overnight at 40° C. were still slightly higher than expected. Subsequently the products were dissolved in ethyl acetate and then washed twice with sodium bicarbonate before drying under vacuum overnight. The results of the separation are shown below in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Peak # 1 2 Optical Rotation (−) (+) Structure

Compound # BX BY Name R-(−)-3-(4-Trifluoromethoxy- S-(+)-3-(4-Trifluoromethoxy- phenyl)butyramide phenyl)butyramide Retention Time 12.96 15.89 (min) Weight (g) 15.8  17.3  % e.e. 99.7  99.1  Yield  83.8%  91.8%

The enantiomeric excesses were determined by chiral HPLC [(R,R)-Whelk-O-1 10 μm, 5 cm id×25 cm L]. The absolute configuration was assigned by comparison of the retention times of the two enantiomers with previously reported data. Results are shown below in FIGS. 9-11.

Example 29. Synthesis of Compound BX (i.e., the R Enantiomer of Compound H) by an Alternative Separation Route

Examples 30-41. Preparation of Various Primary Amides

TABLE 3 Example Weight % Product Chemical Corresponding No. Formula (g) Yield Name Carboxylic Acid 30 AL 1.76 74 3-Cyclopropyl-3-ρ-tolyl- 3-cyclopropyl-3-(4-methylphenyl) propionamide propanoic acid 31 AQ 1.69 81 3-(4-Fluoro-phenyl)-4- 3-(4-Fluorophenyl)-4-methyl methyl-pentanoic acid- pentanoic acid amide 32 AR 0.420 18 3-(4-Chloro-phenyl)-4- 3-(4-Chlorophenyl)-4-methyl methyl-pentanoic-acid- pentanoic acid amide 33 Y 1.12 56 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4-fluoro- 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4-fluorophenyl) phenyl)propionamide propanoic acid 34 X 1.42 71 3-(4-Chloro-phenyl)-3- 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4- cyclopropyl-propionamide chlorophenyl)propanoic acid 35 AO 1.25 62 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4-fluoro- 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4-fluoro-3- 3-methyl phenyl)- methylphenyl)propanoic acid propionamide 36 AM 1.68 80 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4- 3-cyclopropyl-3-(4- methoxy-phenyl)- methoxyphenyl)propanoic acid propionamide 37 AP 1.62 74 3-Cyclopropyl-3- (5-methyl-2,3-dihydro-1- (2,3dihydro-benzo[1,4] benzofuran-2-yl)acetic acid dioxin-6-yl)propionamide 38 AN 1.57 72 3-Cyclopropyl-3-(4- 3-cyclopropyl-3-(4-methoxy-3- methoxy-3-methyl- methylphenyl)propanoic acid phenyl)propionamide 39 AS 2.15 98 3-(4-Methoxy-3-methyl- 3-(4-methoxy-3-methylphenyl)-4- phenyl)-4-methylpentanoic methylpentanoic acid acid amide 40 AB 1.30 30 3-(4-Methoxy-phenyl)- 3-(4-Methoxy-phenyl)-pentanoic pentanoicacid amide acid 41 BB 1.73 86 2,2-Diphenyl- 2,2-Diphenyl- cyclopropanecarboxylicacid cyclopropanecarboxylic acid amide

The primary amides listed in Table 3 (Examples 30-41) were prepared from the corresponding carboxylic acids using the method of Example 1.

Examples 42-59. Preparation of Various Secondary and Tertiary Amides

The secondary and tertiary amides listed in the Table 4 (Examples 42-59) were prepared using the corresponding acid chlorides and amines by the method of Example 2. In certain cases (i.e., when the amines used were amino acids), the amine hydrochlorides were first rendered as free bases using excess tri-ethylamine.

TABLE 4 Example Weight % Product Chemical Corresponding No. Formula (g) Yield Name Amine 42 BC 0.793 88 N-Methyl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxyphenyl)- Methylamine butyramide 43 BD 0.783 90 N,N-Dimethyl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- N,N-dimethylamine phenyl)-butyramide 44 BE 0.685 85 N-Ethyl-N-methyl-3-(4- N-Ethylmethylamine trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butyramide 45 BF 0.910 52 N-Ethyl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)- Ethylamine butyramide 46 BG 0.280 13 1-Pyrrolidin-1-yl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- Pyrrolidine phenyl)-butan-1-one 47 BH 1.30 64 1-Piperidin-1-yl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- Piperidine phenyl)-butan-1-one 48 BI 0.705 32 1-Morpholin-4-yl-3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- Morpholine phenyl)-butan-1-one 49 BJ 0.900 36 1-(4-Methyl-piperazin-1-yl)-3-(4- 1-Methylpiperazine trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butan-1-one hydrochloride 50 BK 1.89 87 1-(4-Methyl-piperidin-1-yl)-3-(4- 4-Methylpiperidine trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butan-1-one 51 BL 1.50 61 N-(2-Methoxy-ethyl)-3-(4- 2-Methoxyethylamine trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butyramide 52 BM 1.20 50 N-(3-Methoxy-propyl)-3-(4- 3-Methoxypropylamine trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butyramide 53 BN 1.50 63 1-[3-(4-Trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)- 4-Piperidinecarboxamide butyryl]-piperidine-4carboxylic acidamide 54 BO 0.870 83 (S)-4-Methyl-2-[3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- L-Leucinamide phenyl)-butyrylamino]-pentanoic acid amide 55 BP 0.760 39 (R)-4-Methyl-2-[3-(4-trifluoromethoxy- D-Leucinamide phenyl)-butyrylamino]-pentanoic acid amide 56 BQ 0.430 23 (S)-1-[3-(4-Trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)- S-Prolinamide butyryl]-pyrrolidine-2-carboxylicacid amide 57 BR 0.507 27 N-((S)-1-Carbamoyl-propyl)-3-(4- L-2-Aminobutanamide trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butyramide 58 BS 0.460 24 N-((S)-1-Carbamoyl-ethyl)-3-(4- L-Alaninamide trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)-butyramide 59 BT 1.16 46 1-[3-(4-Trifluoromethoxy-phenyl)- Nipecotamide butyryl]-piperidine-3-carboxylic acid amide

Example 60. Preparation of Compounds BU (3-[2-(trifluoromethoxy)-phenyl]butyramide), BV (3-[4-chloro-phenyl]butyramide), and BW (3-[3,4-dichloro-phenyl]butyramide)

Compounds BU, BV, and BW were prepared from the corresponding acetophenones by the same method used in the preparation of Examples 4-14, except that for the preparation of BV and BW, platinum was used as the catalyst instead of palladium, and ambient pressure was used (instead of higher pressure, e.g., 45 psi).

Example 61. Synthesis of Compound CC (3-hydroxy-3-(4(trifluoromethoxy)-phenyl)butanamide)

In a 250 mL three necked flask equipped with a stirring bar, an internal thermocouple and a rubber septum was placed BTSA (49 mmol, 12 mL) in 90 mL THF at −73° C. A hexanes solution of n-BuLi (1.6 M, 49 mmol, 30.6 mL) was added dropwise (strongly exothermic) through a syringe over 25-30 min while maintaining the temperature below −69° C. The mixture was stirred for 15-20 min then a THF (80 mL) solution of the ketone (54 mmol, 11.02 g) was added over 25-30 min while maintaining the temperature below −70° C. After stirring 90 min at around −73° C. the cooling bath was removed and added 1N aq.HCl until pH 5-6. The cold solution was diluted with 400 mL EtOAc and transferred into a separating funnel. The organic layer was separated and washed with water, brine then dried (MgSO₄). After concentration the crude solid was suspended in 150 mL hexanes and warmed up to 45° C. while spinning on a rotary evaporator for ˜10 min. The solid was filtered and further washed with 50 mL hexanes then dried to a constant weight. Yield: 10.2 g (79%). ¹H-NMR spectroscopy (FIGS. 12 and 13) of each final product gave signals consistent with its structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 62. Synthesis of Compounds CD and CE

Compounds CD and CE were synthesized using the corresponding 3′-substituted acetophenones via the method used for the preparation of Compound CC in Example 61, above. ¹H-NMR spectroscopy (FIGS. 14 and 15) of each final product gave signals consistent with its structure and indicated greater than 98% purity.

Example 63. Demonstration of Biological Activity in Rodent Anticonvulsant Models of Epilepsy

The anticonvulsant activities of various compounds of the invention were demonstrated in vivo in various rodent (mouse and rat) models of epilepsy. The animal testing was performed according to methods known in the relevant art. The results for compounds A, G, H, I, and F are summarized below in Tables 5 and 6.

TABLE 5 ANTICONVULSANT PROFILES OF COMPOUNDS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION, FOLLOWING I.P. ADMINISTRATION TO MICE MID₅₀ or ED₅₀ (mg/kg) and (PI)* Compound MID₅₀ MES^(a) (PI) s.c. MET^(b) (PI) AGS^(c) (PI) 6 Hz (PI) A 107.87  41.61 (2.59) 39.28 (2.75) — 47.6 (2.27) G <100 <100 ≤100 — — I <100 <100 ≤100 — — H 158.98 76.11 (2.1) 91.36 (1.74) 22.5 (7.1) 54.98 (2.9) F 208.37 85.32 (2.4) 85.47 (2.4)  41.30 (5)   80.8 (2.6) MID₅₀ = median minimal motor impairment dose; ED₅₀ = median effective dose; ^(a)Maximal Electroshock Seizure test. ^(b)Subcutaneous Metrazol Seizure threshold. ^(c)Audiogenic Seizure susceptible. (PI)* = Protective Index = MID₅₀/ED₅₀.

In addition to the compounds shown in Table 5 above, the following compounds also show activity in the MES test at 100 mg/kg: C, Q-2, Q-3, X, Y, AA, AE, AL, AM, AN, AO, AQ, AS, BD, BE, BG, BJ, BL, BR, BU and BV; and at 300 mg/kg: D, L, N, P, Q-1, AP, AR, AW, BF, BM, BN, and BS.

In addition to the compounds shown in Table 5 above, the following compound also shows activity in the s.c. MET test at 100 mg/kg: Y; and at 300 mg/kg: D, J, L, Q-1, Q-2, X, AA, AO, AP, AQ, AR, BC, BD, BF, BH, BI, and BM.

In addition to the compounds shown in Table 5 above, the following compounds also show activity in the 6 Hz (minimal clonic seizure) model at 100 mg/kg: Y, Q-1, Q-2, AA, AN, AX, AY, BB, BL, BK, and CA; at 200 mg/kg: AE and AW; and at 300 mg/kg: Q.

In the corneal kindled mouse model, compound F has an ED₅₀=60.6 mg/kg, and brought the seizure score down to zero at 100 mg/kg, indicating that it knocked out the epileptic focus.

Two tertiary amide compounds showed evidence of CNS-stimulating activity. Specifically, mice administered compound BE at 300 mg/kg i.p. exhibited tremors 30 minutes after injection, and those given compound BH exhibited vocalization and hyperactivity on injection lasting for 5-6 minutes. In addition, two further tertiary amide compounds, BJ and BT, produced diarrhea in the mice 30 minutes after i.p. injection of 100 mg/kg of each.

TABLE 6 MINIMAL MOTOR IMPAIRMENT AND PROFILES OF ANTICONVULSANT ACTIVITY OF COMPOUNDS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION IN RATS (ADMINISTERED P.O.) MID₅₀ MES s.c. MET Compound (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (PI) (mg/kg) (PI) A 244.90 28.80 (8.5) 45.00 (5.4) H >500 56.73 (>9)   88.09 (>5.7) F >500 (none observed) 26.39 (>19) >250

In addition to the compounds shown in Table 6 above, the following compounds also show activity in the MES test at 30 mg/kg: G, I, P, X, AA, AM, AQ, AS, BE, BG, BJ, and BV.

In addition to the compounds shown in Table 6 above, compound G also shows activity in the s.c. MET test at 30 mg/kg.

In the Preliminary Hippocampal Kindling Screening in rats (i.p.), compounds A and H brought the seizure score down to zero at 65 and 100 mg/kg, respectively, indicating that they knocked out the epileptic focus. In the Hippocampal Kindled Rats model, compounds A, F and H showed activity with ED₅₀ values of 26, 29, and 61 mg/kg, respectively, and compound G showed activity by significantly lowering the seizure score at 100 mg/kg.

Example 64. Demonstration of Biological Activity in Rat Anticonvulsant Models of Status Epilepticus

The anticonvulsant activities of various compounds of the present invention were also demonstrated in vivo in two rat models of status epilepticus. The animal testing was performed using the protocols developed in the Anticonvulsant Screening Program (ASP) at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health (NIH). The results are summarized below in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Compound Activities in Status Epilepticus Models (ASP/NINDS/NIH data) (Pilocarpine-induced Status Epilepticus in Rats) Test Prevention Intervention @ 30 min Compound Protection Dose (mg/kg) Protection Dose (mg/kg) A*  86% 65 57% 120 B  43% 300 nt — D 100% 200 75% 400 O  50% 450  0% Inactive L 100% 450 29% 600 M 100% 600  0% Inactive K  50% 300 38% 600 I*  86% 65 100%  130 H*  86% 200 97% 176 G* 100% 200 88% 200 F*  14% 65 nt — J  75% 600 38% 600 P* 100% 450 nt — Q-3* 100% 200 nt — AW*  75% 450 25% 200 AP  75% 450 75% 600 AB 100% 450 nt — AL* 100% 200 nt — AM* 100% 200 38% 400 AQ  86% 65 nt — AV  25% 600 nt — AY*  38% 600 nt — BU* 100% 65 50% 127 AS 100% 200 nt — BF*  88% 200 nt — Y  88% 65 nt — AO*  86% 65 50%  97 BX 100% 100 50% 155 BZ 100% 200 nt — CA* 100% 600 nt — CB* 100% 200 nt — CC 100% 200 nt — *Weight gain or weight maintenance in rats.

Example 65. Demonstration of Lack of Toxicity in In Vitro (LDH and Cell Proliferation) Assays

Compounds A, I, H, and F were tested by Stem Cell Innovations, Inc. (Houston, Tex.) in their ACTIVTox© Human Liver Cell-based assays (using C3A hepatocyte cells). Specifically, the compounds were tested in the LDH release assay, which determines the release of Lactate DeHydrogenase (an indicator of cell death) at various concentrations of test compound.

A concentration of 100 μM of test compound is a much higher level of exposure to liver cells than would ever be expected under physiological conditions. Therefore, using 100 μM as a standard test concentration (for comparative purposes), the ratio of the absorbance (which measures the level of LDH release) resulting from the presence of the test compound versus the negative control is a value known as the “average (or mean) fold control” (Average Fold Control=Average of Absorbance/Average of Negative Control). An average fold control value below 1.75 indicates that the test compound has no cyto- or hepatotoxic activity in the LDH release assay.

The ACTIVTox data (see Table 8, below) show that the compounds A, I, H and F are not cyto- or hepatotoxic at physiologically relevant concentrations (i.e., <100 μM).

TABLE 8 Cytotoxic and hepatotoxic data (mean fold control at 100 μM) from the ACTIVTox LDH release assay. LDH release, mean fold control Test Compound (at 100 μM) A 1.05 I 1.03 H 1.32 F 1.47

Compounds A and I were also tested in the ACTIVTox Cell Proliferation Assay and were found to be non-toxic to proliferating cells at a concentration of 100 μM, with mean fold control values of 1.15 and 1.25, respectively.

Example 66. Demonstration of Analgesic Activity in the Mouse Formalin Pain Model and the Sciatic Nerve Ligation Model in Rats

Compounds of the present invention are active in the mouse formalin pain model, significantly decreasing the animals' pain response in both the acute and inflammatory phases. Furthermore, such compounds have also been shown to exhibit significant analgesic effects against both:

a) inflammatory (formalin-induced) pain, and

b) neuropathic (sciatic nerve-ligation) pain.

Classical animal pain models, such as the formalin test (chemically induced nociception) and the sciatic nerve ligation model of chronic pain and painful neuropathy (including allodynia, hyperalgesia, and spontaneous pain) are well-known in the art

The racemic compound H is active in the formalin pain model (mouse i.p.), significantly decreasing the animals' pain response in both the acute (to 63% of the control) and inflammatory (also to 63% of the control) phases at 76 mg/kg i.p. (at 0.5 hours). In the sciatic nerve-ligation model in rats, compound H also significantly increases the allodynic threshold to 455% of the control at a dose of 62 mg/kg at 0.5 hours.

One of the active enantiomers of H, i.e., BX, is also active in the mouse formalin pain model, significantly decreasing the animals' pain response in both the acute (to 84% of the control) and inflammatory (to 41% of the control) phases at 76 mg/kg i.p. (at 0.5 hours).

The other active enantiomer of H, i.e., BY, is also active in the mouse formalin pain model, significantly decreasing the animals' pain response in both the acute (to 53% of the control) and inflammatory (to 24% of the control) phases at 76 mg/kg i.p. (at 0.5 hours). It thus appears that BY is the more potent and effective analgesic enantiomer of H, although both of the enantiomers exhibit significant activity in the mouse formalin pain model.

At a dose of 100 mg/kg, compound G also exhibited a significant analgesic effect in the sciatic nerve-ligation model in rats, shown by a statistically significant increase of the allodynic threshold (to 275% of the control), especially at 1 hour post-administration. [The response (threshold for foot withdrawal) was measured in grams.] The allodynic threshold was observed to decrease in a time-dependent manner, with the analgesic effect (i.e., an increased allodynic threshold) still evident in the rats at 2 hours (219% of the control) and 4 hours (175% of the control) post-administration.

Example 67. Mechanism-of-Action Studies with Compound H

The mechanisms of action of many currently marketed anticonvulsant drugs are not fully understood. Although numerous molecular targets exist wherein anticonvulsants may exert an effect, the final common pathway appears to be through modulation of voltage-gated and/or neurotransmitter-gated ion channels. Thus, the common link among the various proposed mechanisms involves the ability of an anticonvulsant to modulate ion channel function. Presently, a number of prototype anticonvulsants are thought to exert their action (at least in part) by reducing sustained, high-frequency repetitive firing of action potentials by modulating voltage-dependent sodium (Na+) channels. The effect of promising candidate substances on voltage-gated Na+ channels can be assessed using state-of-the-art electrophysiological techniques. Mechanism-of-action studies for compound H (at 100 μM and lower concentrations) indicate the following:

-   -   a) inactive at kainate (KA; at 100 μM, 99±1% of control at a         holding potential of −70 mV) and GABA receptors (at 100 μM,         108±3% of control at a holding potential of −70 mV).     -   b) very weak activity at sodium channels as measured by lack of         inhibition of sodium currents (at 100 μM, 91±1% and 98±1% of         controls at holding potentials of −60 and −90 mV, respectively).     -   c) weak activity at NMDA receptors (at 100 μM [+glycine (1 μM)],         enhancement of NMDA current to 119±7% of control at a holding         potential of −70 mV).     -   d) a novel molecular target (not yet identified) is implicated.

In connection with the weak antagonist activity seen at NMDA receptors, it is noteworthy that no evidence of psychotomimetic and/or stereotypical behaviors has been observed in any of the in vivo animal studies that were carried out with the compounds of the present invention, even when high doses were administered

The effects of compound H (at a concentration of 100 μM) on sodium currents were evaluated in electrophysiological studies at holding potentials of −60 and −90 mV (using 8 cells). The observed inhibition of sodium currents by compound H (expressed as % of control±S.E.M.) was statistically significant, although the overall effect was actually very weak (i.e., 91±1% and 98±1%, respectively). By way of comparison, the % of control inhibited for typical sodium-channel-blocking drugs such as phenytoin or lamotrigine is about 50%. Since, in addition, compound H does not profile like these marketed drugs in the resistant seizure models, it appears that the compound of the invention (H) exerts its unique profile by a combination of mechanisms. This unique profile (including protective activity against both convulsive and non-convulsive seizures induced in the resistant status epilepticus models) further implicates a novel mechanism of action exerted by a unique target (which has not yet been identified) that explains its activity. With regard to possible non-traditional analgesic mechanisms involved in mitigating and relieving chronic neuropathic pain, it is noteworthy that the relatively new analgesic agent, tramadol (Nucynta®), acts in part as a weak, but fast-acting serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (traditionally antidepressant mechanisms), while several opioids (such as methadone) have NMDA antagonist activity in addition to their μ-opioid agonist properties. Other CNS-active compounds which have shown analgesic properties as well as NMDA antagonist activity include the psychotropic agent ketamine, the centrally active potassium-channel opener, flupirtine (with weak NMDA antagonist properties), dextromethorphan, ketobemidone, and possibly piritramide. Furthermore, carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine act principally on sodium channels, tricylic antidepressants may also work on sodium channels in peripheral nerves, and gabapentin and pregabalin work by blocking specific calcium channels on neurons.

Example 68. Demonstration of Activity in the Lamotrigine-Resistant Amygdala-Kindled Rat Model of Partial Epilepsy and the Gender Neutral Test

Resistance to Lamotrigine can be induced in rats by treating them with the drug during the kindling acquisition phase (i.e., during kindling development in the epileptogenesis phase). Subsequently, the fully kindled Lamotrigine-refractory rats (i.e., now fully manifesting seizures) are also resistant (cross-tolerant) to carbamazepine, phenytoin, and topiramate, but not to valproate (or diazepam or the clinical Phase III drug candidate, retigabine).

The Lamotrigine-resistant amygdala-kindled rat model (LRM) may thus serve as an early model of drug-resistant (i.e., pharmacoresistant, refractory) epilepsy to identify novel AEDs for further evaluation in more extensive model systems, including the phenytoin-resistant kindled rat

The LRM thus serves to identify novel broad-spectrum AEDs which may be effective in the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsies. Up to 35% of epilepsy patients continue to suffer from uncontrolled seizures because of their drug-resistant epilepsies. In such cases, the patients do not respond to standard AEDs such as lamotrigine (Lamictal®), carbamazepine (Tegretol®), phenytoin (Dilantin®), and topiramate (Topamax®).

The only currently marketed AED which is effective in this animal model (LRM) is the very broad-spectrum agent, valproate. Since compound H is also active in the LRM, it thus shares valproate's wide-ranging anticonvulsant and antiepileptic activities.

The Gender Neutral test demonstrates the differences between the genders in the way that they respond to AEDs. In this test, compound H was found to be equally efficacious in both genders, unlike, e.g., phenytoin (Dilantin©) which is significantly less effective in male kindled rats than it is in female kindled rats.

Example 69. In Vitro Human CYP-450 Studies

Out of eight human CYP-450 enzymes tested, compound H has either no or only a remote possibility of inhibiting four of the tested enzymes (3A4, 2E1, 2B6 and 1A2). On the other hand, it is an inhibitor for 2C19, 2D6, 2A6 and 2C9. The Ki values range from 29 to 174 μM.

Example 70. Demonstration of Biological Activity in Rodent Anticonvulsant Models of Epilepsy

The anticonvulsant activities of various compounds of the invention were demonstrated in vivo in various rodent (mouse and rat) models of epilepsy. The animal testing was performed according to methods known in the relevant art. The results for a number of compounds are summarized below in Table 9.

TABLE 9 ANTICONVULSANT PROFILES OF COMPOUNDS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION, FOLLOWING I.P. ADMINISTRATION TO MICE Mice (I.P.) Corneal COMPOUND MID₅₀ MES s.c. MET AGS 6 Hz (32 mA) Kindled A TD₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = Not 1/4, 1/4 @ Not 107.87 41.61 39.28 Tested 0.25, 1.0 hrs Tested (96.45- (35.18- (33.15- @ 30 mg/kg 125.33) @ 45.13) @ 44.43) @ 0.25 hrs 0.25 hrs 0.25 hrs B 2/8 @0.5 hr No No Not Not Not 100 mg/kg Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested D No No No Not ED₅₀ = Not separation separation separation Tested 66.04 Tested (48.26- 83.75) @ 0.25 hrs C 1/8 @0.5 hr 1/6 @0.5 hr, No Not Not Not 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg Activity Tested Tested Tested O No No No Not 1/4, 1/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 2.0 , 4.0 hrs Tested @ 100 mg/kg L No No No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 116.97 Tested (91.77- 145.35) @ 0.25 hrs M No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested N No 1/3 @0.5 hr, No Not Not Not Toxicity 100 mg/kg Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg K No No No Not No Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Activity Tested I 8/8 @0.50 hr, 3/3 @0.5, 1/1 @0.5, Not 3/4, 2/4 @ 4/4 @ 100 mg/kg 3/3 @ 4.0 hr 1/5 @ 4.0 hr Tested 0.25, 0.5 0.5 hr, 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg and 1/4 @ 100 mg/kg 1.0, 4.0 hrs. Average 50 mg/kg seizure 4/4@ 0.25, score is 0: 0.50, 1.0, (0, 0, 0,) 2.0 and 1/4 @ 4.0 hrs. 100 mg/kg H ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = 2/4 @ 158.98 76.11 91.36 22.50 54.98 1.0 hr, (128.24- (53.81- (83.85- (18.4- (33.16- 50 mg/kg 176.49) @ 83.70) @ 118.09) @ 31.8) 86.44) @ Average 0.25 hrs 0.5 hrs 0.5 hrs @ 0.5 hr 1.0 hrs seizure score is 2: (0, 4, 0, 4) G 7/8 @0.5 hr 3/3 @0.5 1/1 @0.5 Not Not Not 100 mg/kg hr, 1/3 @ hr, Tested Tested Tested 4.0 hr 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg F TD₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = 208.37 85.32 85.47 41.30 80.8 mg/kg 60.6 mg/kg (166.87- (72.58- (55.98- (28.31- (62.2- (42.2- 278.29) @ 96.14) @ 127.97) @ 50.09) 98.4) 87.3) 0.25 hrs 2.0 hrs 1.0 hrs @ 2.0 hrs @0.5 hrs, @1.0 hrs, TD₅₀ > 200 J No No No Not Not Not separation separation separation Tested Tested Tested AV No No No Not No Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Activity @ Tested 200 mg/kg AA TD₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = Not ED₅₀ = Not 141.6 86.6 149.4 Tested 126 Tested (105.8- (74.2- (119.3- (92.8- 150.3) 96.6) @ 177) @ 146.2) @ 0.25 hrs 0.5 hrs 0.5 hrs @ 1.0 hrs TD₅₀ = 141.6 (105.8- 150.3) @ 0.25 AW No No No Not 4/4, 4/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.25, 0.5 hrs Tested @ 200 mg/kg AE No No No Not 2/4 @ 0.25 hrs Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested @ 200 mg/kg Tested AX No No No Not 3/4, 2/4, Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 1/4 @ Tested 0.50, 1.0, 2.0 hrs @ 100 mg/kg AY No No No Not 1/4 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested @ 1.0 hrs Tested @ 100 mg/kg Q-2 No No No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 83.2 Tested (48.1- 127.1) @ 0.5 hr Q-1 No 2/3, 1/3 @ No Not 1/4 @0.25 Not Toxicity 0.50, 4.0 hrs Activity Tested hr, 50 mg/kg Tested @ 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg 4/4, 3/4, 4/4, 1/4 @0.25, 0.50, 1.0, 2.0 hrs, 100 mg/kg AM No 1/3 @ No Not 1/4, 2/4, Not Toxicity 0.25 hr, Activity Tested 1/4 @ Tested 100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.50, 1.0 hrs, 100 mg/kg AP No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested AN No 1/3 @ No Not 4/4, 3/4, Not Toxicity 0.25 hr, Activity Tested 1/4 @ Tested 100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.50, 1.0 hrs, 100 mg/kg AS No 3/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.25 hrs, Activity Tested Tested Tested 100 mg/kg AB No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity @ Activity Tested Tested Tested 100 mg/kg BU 5/8 @ 3/3, 2/3 @ No Not Not Not 0.5 hrs, 0.50, 4.0 hrs Activity Tested Tested Tested 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg AL No 3/3 @ No Not 4/4, 2/4, Not Toxicity 0.25 hrs, Activity Tested 2/4 , 1/4 @ Tested 100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 hrs 100 mg/kg AQ No 3/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.50 hrs, Activity Tested Tested Tested 100 mg/kg AR No No No Not 3/4, 2/4, Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 2/4 @ Tested 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 hrs 100 mg/kg BT No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg*** BG No 1/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.50 hrs, Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg BI No No No Not 2/4, 1/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.25, 0.5, hrs, Tested @ 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg 50 mg/kg BH No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg**** BJ No 2/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.25 hrs, Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg** 100 mg/kg BB No No No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 65.09 Tested (56.24- 76.58) @ 0.5 hrs BS No No No Not 1/4 @ 1.0 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested hr, Tested 100 mg/kg BR No No No Not 1/4 @ 0.5 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested hr, Tested 100 mg/kg BP No No No Not 1/4 @ 0.25 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested hr, Tested 100 mg/kg BQ Not Not Not Not Not Not Tested Tested Tested Tested Tested Tested BF No No No Not 3/4, 4/4, Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 2/4, 3/4 @ Tested @ 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 hrs 100 mg/kg Y No 1/3, 1/3 @ 2/5 @0.5 hrs, Not ED₅₀ = 4/4 @ Toxicity 0.5, 2.0 hrs, 100 mg/kg** Tested 30.74 0.25 hr, @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg (17.78- 100 mg/kg 43.79) @ Average 0.25 hrs seizure score is 0: (0, 0, 0,) X No 3/3, 3/3 @ No Not 4/4, 4/4, 2/4 @ Toxicity 1., 2.0 hrs, Activity Tested 4/4, 2/4, 0.25 hr, @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg 1/4 @ 100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.5, Average 1.0, 2.0, seizure 4.0 hrs score is 3: 75 mg/kg (3, 5, 0, 4) AO No 1/3 @ No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity 0.50 hrs, Activity Tested 65.62 Tested @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg (43.99- 89.22) @ 0.25 hr BO No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested BE No 1/3 @ No Not 2/4 @ 0.5 hr, Not Toxicity 0.50 hrs, Activity Tested 100 mg/kg Tested @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg BD 4/8 @ 0.5 hrs, 1/1 @ No Not 4/4, 4/4, Not 100 mg/kg 0.50 hrs, Activity Tested 2/4 @ 0.5, Tested 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg 1.0, 2.0, hrs 100 mg/kg BC No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg BN No No No Not Not Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Tested Tested @100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg BL No 2/3 @ No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity 0.25 hrs, Activity Tested 75.5 Tested @100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg (51.3- 104.6) @ 0.25 hr BM No No No Not 1/4 @ 0.5 hr Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested @ 100 mg/kg Tested @ 100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg @100 mg/kg BK No 1/3, 2/3 @ No Not ED₅₀ = Not Toxicity 0.5, 2.0 hrs, Activity Tested 78 Tested 100 mg/kg (47.6- 157.2) @ 0.5 hr BV No 2/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.50 hr, Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg BW No 1/3 @ 1/1 @ 4.0 Not Not Not Toxicity 0.50 hrs, hr, 30 and Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg BX TD₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = 103.5 47.89 51.44 16.46 20.4 34.04 (96.74- (44.59- (40.67- (12.2- (12.2- (19.75- 115.93) @ 50.36) @ 59.89) @ 36.1) @ 36.1) @ 53.60) @ 0.25 hr 1.0 hr 1.0 hr 0.5 hr 0.5 hr 1.0 hr BY TD₅₀ = No No Not 1/4, 2/4 Not 103.5 Activity Activity Tested @0.25, 0.5 hrs. Tested (96.74- 100 mg/kg 115.93) @ 0.25 hr BZ No No No Not No Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Activity Tested @ 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg CA No No No Not No Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Activity Tested @ 100 mg/kg CB No 3/3, 1/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.25, 1.0 Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg hrs. 100 mg/kg CC No 3/3, 2/3 @ No Not Not Not Toxicity 0.5, 4.0 Activity Tested Tested Tested @ 100 mg/kg hrs. @ 100 100 mg/kg mg/kg CD 1/8 @ 0.50 hr, 3/3, 3/3 @ 3/5@ 0.50 Not Not Not 100 mg/kg, 0.5, 4.0 hr, 30 mg/kg. Tested Tested Tested 4/4 @ 0.5 hrs. 1/1 @ 0.5, hr & 2/2 100 mg/kg 4.0 hrs @ 4.0 hr, 100 mg/kg. 300 mg/kg* CE 3/8 @ 0.5 hr, 1/1 @ 1/5 @ 0.5 hr, Not ED₅₀ = Not 100 mg/kg 0.50 hr, 30 mg/kg Tested 21.46 Tested 30 mg/kg, 1/1 @ 0.5 hr, (15.67- 3/3 @ 0.5, 100 mg/kg. 30.14) 4.0 hrs, @ 0.5 hrs 100 mg/kg CI No No No Not 1/4 @ 0.25 hr Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 100 mg/kg Tested @100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg CH No No No Not 1/4, 1/4 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested @0.25, 0.5 hrs. Tested @ 300 mg/kg @ 300 mg/kg @ 300 mg/kg 50 mg/kg AH TD₅₀ = ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = Not ED₅₀ = ED₅₀ = 185.73 69.6 77.98 Tested 65.69 25.19 (161.4- (61.3- (71.61- (47.04- (13.47- 212.2) @ 78.59) @ 85.36) @ 87.47) @ 40.32) @ 0.25 hr 0.25 hr 0.25 hr 1.0 hr 0.25 hr AJ No 3/3, 1/3 @ No Not No Not Toxicity 0.25, 1.0 Activity Tested Activity Tested @ 100 mg/kg hrs. @ 30 and @ 50 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg 1/1 @ 0.5 hrs, 300 mg/kg AK No 3/4, 1/4 @ No Not 4/4, 3/4, Not Toxicity 0.25, 2.0 hrs Activity Tested 1/4 @ Tested @100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg @ 100 mg/kg 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 hrs. 100 mg/kg CX 8/8 @ 0.25 hrs 4/4 @ 2/4 @ 0.25 hrs Not 1/4 @0.25, Not 100 mg/kg 0.25 & 0.5 100 mg/kg* Tested 0.5, 1.0 hrs. Tested hrs and 50 mg/kg 3/4, 2/4 @ 1.0 & 2.0 hrs. 100 mg/kg CY No No No Not 4/4@ 0.25 2/4 @ Toxicity Activity Activity Tested hr and 1/4 0.25 hr, @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @, 0.5, 2.0 hrs. 100 mg/kg 100 mg/kg Average seizure score is 3.75: (4, 3, 5, 3) CZ No No No Not 1/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.25, 0.5 Tested @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. hrs and 2/4 @ 2.0 hr and 1/4 @ 4.0 hr 100 mg/kg DA No No No Not No Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested Activity Tested @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg DB No No No Not 2/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.25, 0.5, Tested @ 100 mg/kg*. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. 1.0 hrs and 1/4 @ 4.0 hrs. 100 mg/kg DC No No No Not 1/4 @0.25, Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.5, 2.0 Tested @ 100 mg/kg*. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. hrs. 100 mg/kg DD No No No Not 1/4 @ 0.5 hr, Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 100 mg/kg Tested @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @100 mg/kg*. DE No No No Not 1/4 @ Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested 0.25, 0.5 hrs, Tested @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. 100 mg/kg DF No No No Not 1/4 @ 2.0 Not Toxicity Activity Activity Tested & 4.0 hrs Tested @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. @ 100 mg/kg. 100 mg/kg MID₅₀ = median minimal motor impairment dose; ED₅₀ = median effective dose; MES = Maximal Electroshock Seizure test. s.c. MET = Subcutaneous Metrazol Seizure threshold. AGS = Audiogenic Seizure susceptible 6 Hz = seizures induced through low-frequency (6 Hz), long-duration (e.g., 3 sec) stimulus delivered through corneal electrodes Corneal Kindled = seizures induced through high-frequency, long-duration (e.g., 3 mA, 60 Hz, 3 seconds) stimulus delivered through corneal electrodes

Example 71. Neuroprotective/Recovery Effects of Various Compounds of the Invention Against Oxidative Damage as Demonstrated in Rat Dopaminergic N27 Cells

FIGS. 20A-25D data are shown illustrating neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects observed in rat dopaminergic N27 cells. Rat dopaminergic N27 cells are commonly used in in vitro and in vivo model systems for studying Parkinson's disease. Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system that affects more than 6 million people worldwide. The motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease result from the death of dopamine generating cells in the substantia nigra, a region of the midbrain.

The N27 rat dopaminergic neuron cell line was harvested from E12 rat mesencephalic tissue and was transfected with SV40 to immortalize the cell line. The N27 cell line, when injected into the striata of 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats (an animal model of PD) caused a time-dependent improvement in neurological deficits. This immortalized cell line has been carefully characterized in studies of dopamine biosynthesis, neurotoxicity and used as a dopaminergic neuron model studies.

A number of compounds described herein were tested to identify and develop potential therapeutics for Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Such therapeutics may not only be able to relieve the devastating symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's Disease (PD) symptoms, but also to slow, halt, or even reverse the pathology neurodegenerative diseases.

Over 90 of the novel compounds described herein were screened in the assays described in reference to FIGS. 20A-25D and more than 20 compounds were identified that showed potent neuroprotective and recovery effects in the N27 in vitro Parkinson's disease model.

The N27 in vitro Parkinson's disease model included a test of cell viability and cell toxicity in response to exposure to oxidative stress (e.g., either 200 μM H₂O₂ or 640 μM MPP+).

Cell viability was tested using the MTT assay. The MTT assay is a colorimetric analysis based on the activities of mitochondrial NAD(P)H-dependent cellular oxidoreductase enzymes. These enzymes are capable of reducing the tetrazolium dye, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium] bromide, to an insoluble formazan (purple). Thus, the assay shows the presence of viable cells by the accumulation of the insoluble formazan dye. More viable cells equal more accumulation of the insoluble formazan dye.

Cell toxicity was tested using the lactose dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. Cells that are stressed secrete LDH. In general, the more cells are stressed, the LDH they secrete into their media. The LDH assay is a reliable colorimetric assay to measure quantitatively the lactose dehydrogenase (LDH) that is released into the cell culture media from damaged cells as a biomarker for cytotoxicity and cytolysis.

FIGS. 20A-25D present data from two types of assays: protection and recovery assays. In the protection assays, the drug candidate was applied to the cells at various concentrations for 24 hours, followed by the exposure to oxidative stress (either 200 μM H₂O₂ or 640 μM MPP+) for measuring neuroprotective effect. H₂O₂ provides a broad measure of oxidative stress, while MPP+ gives a more specific oxidative stress to dopaminergic neurons.

The protection assay results are shown in panels A-C of FIGS. 20-25 In the recovery assays, the cells were first damaged by exposure to H₂O₂ and then various concentrations of the drug were applied to the cells. The results for the recovery assays are shown the D panels of FIGS. 20-25.

All of compounds BX, B, M, N, AS, and BY (FIGS. 20-25, respectively) showed potent dose-dependent neuroprotective effects against both H₂O₂ and MPP+ oxidative stresses in the PD in vitro model based on the two different assays (MTT and LDH). Likewise, in the recovery assays, all of compounds BX, B, M, N, AS, and BY showed a statistically significant, dose-dependent recovery effect from broad H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress cell damage. In addition, compounds Q-3, AH, F, BL, BM, BK, AE, DA, AV, AO, AA, and X were also tested in these assays. Compounds Q-3, AH, F, BL, BM, BK, AE, DA, AV, AO, AA, and X showed statistically significant, dose-dependent neuroprotection and neurorecovery effects similar to compounds BX, B, M, N, AS, and BY (data not shown).

These data indicate that compounds BX, B, M, N, AS, BY, Q-3, AH, F, BL, BM, BK, AE, DA, AV, AO, AA, and X are potential active treatments for Parkinson's disease. In addition, because of the similar mechanisms associated with neurodegenerative diseases, these compounds are likely to be effective against a broad range of neurodegenerative conditions.

Example 72. The Effect of Compound BX on Rotenone-Induced Toxicity in a Drosophila Model of Sporadic Parkinson's Disease

FIGS. 26A-26C illustrate the effect of compound BX in another Parkinson's disease model. Chronic infusion of rotenone to fruit flies reproduces many features of Parkinson disease. Rotenone is a pesticide that inhibits mitochondrial complex I activity, thus creating an environment of oxidative stress in the cell. Many studies have employed rotenone to generate an experimental animal model of Parkinson's disease (PD) that mimics and elicits PD-like symptoms, such as motor and cognitive decline. Evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress-dependent apoptotic pathways contribute to dopaminergic neuron degeneration in PD.

The data shown in FIGS. 26A-26C show that compound BX enhances survival in Drosophila exposed to 500 μM rotenone (26A). In evaluating locomotion behavior, compound BX increases locomotion speed in rotenone-treated flies to a level virtually indistinguishable from mock-treated controls (26B and 26C), mimicking the improvement of locomotion deficit induced by L-DOPA in Drosophila models of sporadic PD. Compound BX therefore protects Drosophila from the neurotoxic effects of rotenone and may prevent oxidative stress in dopaminergic neurons.

Example 73. The Effect of Oral Treatment of Mice for Two Weeks with Compound BX in an MPTP-Induced Parkinson's Disease Model, which Yielded a Reduction of Abnormal Movement in the Hindlimb Clasping Test, Improved Motor Coordination in the Crossbeam Test, and Improved Grooming Behavior in the Coat Grooming Test

In FIG. 27A-27C, data are illustrated showing the effect of oral treatment of mice for two weeks with compound BX in an MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease model. MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) is a neurotoxin precursor to MPP+, which causes permanent symptoms of Parkinson's disease by destroying dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. It has been used to study disease models in various animal studies.

In the study, 9 month-old C57/B16 male mice were treated for 7 days of MPTP injection at a rate of 25 mg/kg dose: once a day. Mice in the treatment group were subsequently treated with 14 days of gavage with compound BX at a rate of 50 μg/gram dose: once a day. Treatment was followed with 5 days of behavioral assays

In the data illustrated in FIG. 27A, treatment with compound BX for two weeks reduced MPTP-induced abnormal involuntary movement in the hindlimb clasping test compared to animals that were treated with MPTP and that were not subsequently treated with compound BX.

In the crossbeam test illustrated in FIG. 27B, mice were tested on their ability to cross a 20 inch beam with four progressively narrower sections—in the experimental design employed in these data, the beam starts out at 2 inches wide and decreases to 0.5 inches wide in four equal sections. Mice were scored on the number of legs slips per crossing. MPTP treatment significantly reduced the physical dexterity of the mice and increased the number of leg slips. Oral treatment with compound BX for two weeks significantly improved the motor coordination and reduced the number of leg slips.

In the coat grooming test illustrated in FIG. 27C, oral treatment of with compound BX for two weeks significantly improved the grooming behavior. Mice tend to groom more often when they are healthy and feeling content. Improvements in grooming behavior in the compound BX treatment group show that treatment with BX improved motor activity and the overall level of health of the MPTP treated mice.

Taken as a whole, these data demonstrate that compound BX had a restorative effect on the neurological health, structure, and function of mice that were treated with MPTP.

Example 74. Histological Analysis: Oral Treatment with Compound BX Induced Recovery from MPTP-Induced Damage in Striatum in Mice

FIGS. 28A and 28B illustrate immunohistochemical analysis of the brains of mice treated with MPTP. As mentioned above, MPTP causes Parkinson's-like symptoms by destroying dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. Loss of dopaminergic neurons leads to the loss of the neurotransmitter dopamine and the onset of Parkinson's symptoms. In these tests, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels were measured in the Striatum (St) (FIG. 28A) and TH+ dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) were counted (FIG. 28B) to assess the recovery effect of compound BX treatment from chronic MPTP-induced damage. In the data illustrated in FIGS. 28A and 28B, two weeks of oral treatment with compound BX was sufficient to induce recovery from MPTP-induced damage in striatum (FIG. 28A) and stimulated the regrowth of TH+ dopaminergic neurons in the Substantia Nigra pars compacta (FIG. 28B). These data are surprising and unexpected.

Example 76. Maze Swimming Assay

To assess spatial memory and learning in lithium-pilocarpine treated animals and to identify novel compounds that might ameliorate cognitive deficits and neuronal loss, rats were tested for their ability to navigate a water maze and find a submerged escape platform based only on their ability to remember and assess only extra maze visual cues. Learning can be assessed by quantifying the time that an animal takes to find the platform (latency) over a number of independent trials. Further, this model is sensitive to the hippocampal damage associated with pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus (SE).

In the spatial memory and learning task of the water maze, all animal groups showed obvious learning as evidenced by a decrease in their escape latencies and distance traveled over the course of each successive training session. However, animals treated with compound BX showed a much faster learning curve in terms of latency. Rats in the pilocarpine alone group displayed significantly higher escape latencies compared to the control group and the group treated with compound BX.

Pilocarpine-induced SE results in marked cell loss in the hippocampus, when compared to the naïve vehicle-treated rats, as evidenced by increased FluoroJade B fluorescence in the dentate gyrus (DG), CA1, and CA3 cell layers. Administration of compound BX, 30 minutes after the first stage 3 convulsive seizure protected the hippocampal neurons against SE-induced cell death in a majority of the animals (11/15; complete neuroprotection), while, 2 of the rats showed partial neuroprotection, where CA3 and hilar neurons of DG are preserved.

To summarize the current results: Pilocarpine-induced SE results in impaired spatial learning and memory in the water maze task. Compound BX at 200 mg/kg, halted the convulsive SE, when administered 30′ after the first stage 3 seizure. Compound BX preserved spatial learning and memory in pilocarpine-induced SE rats. Qualitatively, compound BX offered neuroprotection in a majority of the rats.

The ability to protect against learning defects and provide neuroprotection may be generally applicable to neurodegenerative diseases. Particularly, these results may demonstrate that compound BX and compounds related to it may be potential therapeutics that can protect cognitive function in Alzheimer's patients and possibly prevent and/or reverse neural damage.

Example 76. Mechanism of Action Studies of Compound BX

The data presented below in Tables 10-12 illustrate various studies aimed at identifying the targets that compound BX acts upon. Table 10 illustrates preliminary protein profiling data using Mass spectrometry to identify up/down-regulation by compound BX treatment among numerous identified target proteins. In the results shown in Table 10, superoxide dismutase (SOD) protein amount is increased almost two-fold. This is a significant increase in SOD. SOD protein, which is an enzyme that alternately catalyzes the dismutation (or partitioning) of the superoxide (O₂ ⁻) radical into either ordinary molecular oxygen (O₂) or hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), is strongly associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in the first SOD enzyme (SOD1) can cause familial ALS. Onset of ALS is strongly associated with oxidative stress in the neural tissue of affected individuals. These data indicate that Compound BX may, for example, be effective for reducing the oxidative stress that may lead to the onset of ALS.

Tables 11 and 12 illustrate PCR array data using real-time PCR to track mRNA levels for various potential targets of compound BX. As with the protein data, the upregulated genes shown in Table 11 are genes that are associated with ALS: Als2 and catalase enzyme. It should be noted that while Als2 and catalase mRNA levels are significantly upregulated (i.e., approx. 100 fold), this does not necessarily mean that protein levels will be as highly increased.

Taken as whole, these data indicates that compound BX may have a broad impact on ALS and on many other mechanisms of neurodegeneration that relate to oxidative stress.

TABLE 10 Compound Gene ID Function/Gene Ratio Oxidative Stress Related P07632 Superoxide dismutase [CU—Zn] 1.72 Q63617 Hypoxia up-regulated protein 0.58 F1LRV4 Heat shock 70 kDA protein 0.73 P82995 Heat Shock Protein HSP 90-alpha 0.77 P62630 Elongation factor 1-alpha 1 0.59 Ubiquitin and SUMO Mediated Protein Degradation Related Genes P17220 Proteasome subunit alpha type-2 0.35 Q3T1J1 Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A-1 1.64 G3V7G8 Glycine tRNA ligase 0.67 Mitochondrial P04636 Malate Dehydrogenase 0.68 P61983 14-3-3 Protein Gamma 1.15

TABLE 11 Gene Fold symbol Gene/Function increase Oxidative Stress Related Als2 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2 homolog 109.36 (human)/protein binding, cell death from OS Cat Catalase/enzyme binding, cellular response 82.03 to growth factor stimulate Prdx2 Peroxiredoxin 2/Antioxidant activity, oxidation- 9.66 reduction process, transcription initiation Ldha Lactate dehydrogenase A/Oxidation-reduction binding −9.66 P62630 Aldehyde oxidase 1/oxidation-reduction & ROS 2.1 metabolic process Ubiquitin and SUMO Mediated Protein Degradation Related Gene Psmb5 Proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, beta 3.02 type 5/protein binding, apoptotic process Ubb Ubiquitin B/protein binding, apoptotic process 3.23 Ube2k Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2K (UBC1 homolog, 2.98 yeast)/ATP binding, protein binding, ubiquitin ligase binding

TABLE 12 Gene Fold symbol Gene/Function increase PD-related Genes Snca Alpha-Synuclein/protein binding, DA uptake −2.14 mitochondrial ATP Synthesis, cellular response to OS Syt1 Synaptotagmin I/protein & ATP binding, Protein 2.19 folding, axon guidance, Htr2a 5-HT (serotonin) receptor 2A/protein complex −3.11 binding, drug binding, 5HT binding, G-protein alpha subunit binding Ntrk2 Neurotrophic tyrosine kinase, receptor, type −2.07 2/ATP binding, activation of adenylate cyclase activity Slc6a3 Solute carrier family 6 (DAT), member −5.59 3/Dopamine & protein Binding Bdnf Brain-derived neurotrophic factor 2.58 Syngr3 Synaptogyrin 3/cell junction, synaptic vesicle 2.25 processes, substantia nigra development Mitochondrial Genes Gclc Glutamate-cysteine ligase, catalytic subunit/ATP 5.79 binding, apoptotic mitochondrial changes, response to oxidative stress Atp2b2 ATPase, Ca⁺⁺ transporting, plasma −5.85 membrane 2/ATP binding

Example 76. The Response of Survival Motor Neuron 2 (SMN2) Promoter Reporter Cells to Exposure to Various Compounds

Proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA)—a leading genetic cause of infant death worldwide—is an autosomal recessive degenerative disease characterized by selective loss of a motor neurons of the anterior horn of the spinal cord. This leads to atrophy of limb and trunk muscles. SMA is a leading genetic cause of infant death in the world with an incidence of 1 in 6000-10,000 live births. SMA results from the loss or mutation of the SMN (survival motor neuron) gene. In humans, the SMN gene is duplicated to yield two SMN genes (SMN1 and SMN2). SMN1 and SMN2 differ by a single nucleotide (C→T) within an exon splice enhancer of exon 7. SMN1 transcripts contain exon 7 and produce fully functional SMN protein. Because of the transition in exon, most of the mRNAs derived from the transcription of SMN2 lack exon 7 and produce an unstable protein (SMNΔ7) that is not fully functional. The severity of motor neuron degeneration depends on the copy number of SMN2 and the levels of SMN protein in SMA patients. In transgenic mouse models for SMA, SMN2 copy number also modulates phenotypic severity. Taken together, these observations in mice and men suggest that SMN2 is a phenotypic modifier of disease and, therefore, a strong target for therapeutics development.

Screens of cell lines have been instrumental in identifying many compounds that can increase the expression of SMN2. FIG. 30 illustrates a screen for SMN2 expression of a number of compounds described herein. The data illustrated in FIG. 29 shows that compounds AY, BB, BX, AA, AW, AX, AM, AN, AS, BU, BZ, CA, Y, AJ, CX, AZ, DA, DB, DC, DD, A, L, M, K, AL, BH, X, BM, and BK were able to increase activity of the SMN2 promoter in SMA Fibroblasts. Compounds I, H, BB, CE, HH, F, AK, CZ, DF, B, Q-3

AQ, AR, and BN show evidence of activity in this assay and may warrant further study. SMN2 promoter activity was measured using NSC34 motor neuron-like cells stably transfected with a β-lactamase (BLA) reporter gene under the control of a 3.4-kilobase fragment of the SMN2 promoter. D156844 was used as a positive control for this assay. Compounds AY, BB, BX, AA, AW, AX, AM, AN, AS, BU, BZ, CA, Y, AJ, CX, AZ, DA, DB, DC, DD, A, L, M, K, AL, BH, X, BM, and BK increased SMN2 promoter activity after treatment for 19 hours at a concentration of 1 μM, suggesting that these compounds work by activating the SMN2 promoter. Compounds AA, AX, and K yielded particularly strong hits.

Example 77. The Response of Exon 7 Reporter Cells to Exposure to Various Compounds

To measure changes in the inclusion of exon 7 in SMN2 mRNAs, another NSC34 cell line was used that stably transfected with a reporter construct which expresses BLA when exon 7 is included in the SMN2 minigene mRNAs. 5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)-amiloride (EIPA) was used as a positive control for this assay. Data for tis assay is illustrated in FIG. 30. Compounds L, AX, AM, AN, BU, AJ, and A had a positive effect on the inclusion of exon 7 in SMN2 transcripts, suggesting that these compounds may work by activating the SMN2 promoter and altering splicing to increase the inclusion of exon 7 in the final transcript.

Results for the SMN2 promoter and exon 7 tests are summarized below in Table 13. Particularly strong hits for the SMN2 promoter assay included compounds BX, AX, AM, BU, and K. Particularly strong hits for the exon 7 test included compounds AX, AM, BU, and AJ.

TABLE 13 Compound Promoter Exon 7 inclusion L NO YES BX YES NO AA YES NO AX YES YES AM YES YES AN YES NO AS YES NO BU YES YES BZ YES NO CA YES NO AJ YES YES CX YES NO DA YES NO DC YES NO DD YES NO A NO YES M YES NO K YES NO X YES NO BK YES NO

Example 78. SMN Protein Localization in Response to Exposure to Various Compounds

To validate the SMN2 promoter and exon 7 screens, the effects of compounds H, H (acid form), AY, F, BX, and BY were evaluated on the basis of expression and localization of SMN protein in type II SMA fibroblasts (GM03813). In a normal cell, SMN protein localized within the nucleus to discreet foci known as gems. In SMN-deficient SMA cells, the number of gems is greatly diminished. Although the function of gems is unknown, it is believed that they are somehow involved in the snRNP assembly function of SMN. Gem counting can, therefore, be considered an assay for SMN function.

GM03813 fibroblasts were treated with different doses (100 nM-10 μM) of compounds H, H (acid form), AY, F, BX, and BY for 5 days. SMN immunostaining was then completed on these cells and the number of gems was counted in 100 randomly-selected nuclei. As shown in FIGS. 31A-31C, compounds H, H (acid form), AY, F, BX, and BY increase gem counts in a dose-dependent manner with compound H (and its acid form) being the most potent. In fact, the gem counts at the highest dose of compound H approach those observed for carrier fibroblasts (GM03814). When compared against treatment with 1 μM D157495—a D156844 derivative, all of the compounds tested performed as well as or, even better than D157495. These results show that we have compounds capable of increasing SMN expression and localization to the nucleus (gems) that have similar and even enhanced efficacies to previously identified lead compounds.

Example 78. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a recessive X-linked form of muscular dystrophy, affecting around 1 in 3,600 boys, which results in muscle degeneration and premature death. DMD is thought to be a mitochondrial disorder in which changes in the dystrophin gene lead to dysfunction of muscle cell mitochondria.

In skeletal muscle dystrophy, mitochondrial dysfunction gives rise to an amplification of stress-induced cytosolic calcium signals and an amplification of stress-induced reactive-oxygen species (ROS) production. In a complex cascading process that involves several pathways and is not clearly understood, increased oxidative stress within the cell damages the sarcolemma and eventually results in the death of the cell. Muscle fibers undergo necrosis and are ultimately replaced with adipose and connective tissue.

The data presented herein with regards to the testing compound BX (see Tables 10-12) show that this compound is involved in cellular systems that relieve oxidative stress (e.g., BX upregulates SOD1). Likewise, compound BX appears to upregulate genes that regulate mitochondrial survival (see, e.g., Gclc). The compounds tested herein also seem to function generally to promote cell survival and cell regeneration. Compound BX and compounds related to it are therefore likely to have activity in DMD treatment.

The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. All references recited herein are incorporated herein in their entirety by specific reference. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound represented by Formula I

wherein R₁ is one of H, CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH; Z is one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H₅, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃; R₂ is one of H, CH₃, CH₂H₅, (CH₂)₂OCH₃, (CH₂)₃OCH₃, or C₁-C₅ alkyl; or R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle; R₃ is

where X is nothing, (—CH₂—), (—CH₂-)₂, or (—CH₂-)₃, or

where X is one of nothing, (—CH₂—), (—CH₂-)₂, or (—CH₂—)₃, R₄ is one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃, CONR₁R₂,

where X is (—CH₂—) or (—CH₂-)₂,

where R₅ is one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃, or CONR₁R₂; and n of R₄=1−5 and n of R₅=1-4.
 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is an amide derivative of taurine, glycine, alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, or isoleucine.
 3. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula I of claim 1 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 4. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing one or more neurodegenerative disease, comprising a neuroprotective effective amount of at least one compound of Formula I of claim 1 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 5. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 4, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is at least one of Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
 6. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing spinal muscular atrophy, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula I of claim 1 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 7. A method for treating and/or preventing one or more of a neurodegenerative disease, spinal muscular atrophy, or Duchenne muscular dystrophy, comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of claim
 1. 8. A compound represented by Formula IIA

wherein Ar is a substituted phenyl or an optionally substituted heterocyclic aryl selected form the group consisting of pyrazine, optionally substituted pyridine, or an optionally substituted quinoxaline, wherein up to 5 substituents may be present, wherein each substituent on Ar is independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, thioalkyl, sulfoxyalkyl, sulfonylalkyl, haloalkyl, haloalkoxy, OH, CH₂OH, CONH₂, CN, acetoxy, N(alkyl)₂, benzyl, benzyloxy, NO₂, CHO, CH₃CH(OH), acetyl, OCH₂COOH, an optionally substituted aromatic ring system attached to one or two atoms of the Ar, the aromatic rings being selected from the group consisting of phenyl, phenoxy, and heterocyclic aryl, and a bifunctional substituent that forms a ring with the Ar, wherein the bifunctional substituents are selected from the group consisting of a cycloalkyl and an alkylenedioxy; R₁ and R₂ are each independently selected from the group consisting of H and optionally substituted alkyl, or R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle, wherein when R₁ is H, R₂ is (CH₂)₂SO₃H or CHZCOOH, wherein Z is one of the group consisting of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H₅, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, and CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃; R₃ is selected from the group consisting of OH, optionally substituted alkyl, and together with R₄ cycloalkyl, with the proviso that when R₃ is OH, then R₄ is not an ethyl; R₄ is one of optionally substituted alkyl or together with R₃ cycloalkyl; and X is one of nothing, O, NR₁, S, sulfone, or sulfoxide.
 9. The compound of claim 8, wherein the compound is an amide derivative of taurine, glycine, alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, or isoleucine.
 10. A compound as in claim 8, the compound being represented by Formula II

wherein Ar is an optionally substituted pyrazine, optionally substituted pyridine, or an optionally substituted quinoxaline, wherein up to 5 substituents are optionally present on Ar and each substituent is independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halogen, alkoxy, CH₂OH, CONH₂, CN, and OCH₂COOH.
 11. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula IIA of claim 8 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 12. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing one or more neurodegenerative disease, comprising a neuroprotective effective amount of at least one compound of Formula IIA of claim 8 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 13. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 12, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is at least one of Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
 14. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing spinal muscular atrophy, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula IIA of claim 8 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 15. A method for treating and/or preventing one or more of a neurodegenerative disease, spinal muscular atrophy, or Duchenne muscular dystrophy, comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula IIA of claim
 8. 16. A compound represented by Formula III

wherein R₁ is one of H, CH₃, C₂H₅, (CH₂)₂SO₃H, or CHZCOOH; Z is one of H, CH₃, CH(CH₃)₂, CH₂Cl₆H, CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, or CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃; R₂ is independently one of H or CH₃; or R₁ and R₂ together are cycloalkyl or heterocycle; R₃ is one of H, Cl, F, CF₃, CN, C₁-C₅ alkyl, C₁-C₅ alkoxy, OCF₃ or CONR₁R₂; and n=0-2.
 17. The compound of claim 16, wherein the compound is an amide derivative of taurine, glycine, alanine, valine, phenylalanine, leucine, or isoleucine.
 18. A pharmaceutical composition, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula III of claim 16 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 19. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing one or more neurodegenerative disease, comprising a neuroprotective effective amount of at least one compound of Formula III of claim 16 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 20. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 19, wherein the neurodegenerative disease is at least one of Huntington's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).
 21. A pharmaceutical composition for treating and/or preventing spinal muscular atrophy, comprising a therapeutically effective amount of at least one compound of Formula III of claim 16 admixed with at least one of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or an excipient.
 22. A method for treating and/or preventing one or more of a neurodegenerative disease, spinal muscular atrophy, or Duchenne muscular dystrophy, comprising administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of claim
 16. 